ASSESSING STUDENT UNDERSTANDING

The last focus area we are going to address in depth this year is the notion of assessing student understanding
of science, and how this process relates to the instructional efforts of the teacher. Before we get into details
of this process, we need to address some broad considerations about assessment, so that we have a common
understanding of what we want or need to address. The notes on the following pages accompany the
presentations around this issue.

Assessment vs. Grading

One of the difficulties in thinking about assessment is that teachers and students so often confuse the concept
with grading. Assessment needs to be viewed as an on-going process intended to further our students’ learning
and understanding of the desired materials. Grading is not such a process, considering the way it is used in
most classrooms. If we are to assess our students’ learning in order to determine whether or not they are
meeting educational or other objectives within the class, we must evaluate their learning at a variety of stages
along the way, as opposed to a final, cumulative, all-or-nothing process. The underlying assumption that goes
with this definition of assessment is that we are doing this to better assist our students in learning and
understanding the concepts and principles we are teaching in our classrooms.

Assessment Grades
Formative Summative
Diagnostic Final
Private to student and assessor Part of administrative record
Non-judgmental Judgmental
Specific General
Subtext and process specific Text and information specific
Goal directed Content driven
Focus is on learning Focus is on “counting” or discipline

Purposes of Assessment
When examining the types of assessment we use within our classrooms, we need to determine the purpose of
the assessment and whether or not it is properly assessing the learning objective of the student. When this is
not done, it often causes misunderstanding and anxiety on the part of the student, both toward the class and
the teacher. When determining a method of assessment, one should ask the following questions:

1. What tools are we already using?

2. How are we using the results?
3. How are we reporting the results?
4. To whom are we reporting?
5. What school proficiencies (goals) are being measured by the results?
6. What are the relative strengths of the process?
7. What are the weaknesses?
8. What should we do to better achieve our purposes?

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Once these questions are asked by educators of their own classroom and school, it is much easier to determine
appropriate methods of assessment for the actual instructional goals of the class.

To influence policy
and planning

To focus
teaching

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

To focus student
learning

To improve
systems

To focus student learning:

1. To inform and guide students as to what they have learned and to suggest what they need to learn so
they can adequately manage the direction of their own work.
2. To inform and guide parents for the same reasons.

To focus teaching:
3. To inform day-to-day teaching so that teachers can adjust lesson plans to meet student needs.
4. To evaluate teaching effects and the usefulness of their teaching strategies and methods employed in
the classroom.

To improve systems:
5. To determine special services that might be required to assist students.
6. To evaluate systems which run the school.
7. To evaluate the curriculum as a whole, and make necessary adjustments to accommodate student
needs.

To influence policy and planning:

8. To inform school boards and larger decision making bodies of the programs and evaluate their needs.
9. To inform the public of the quality of educational programs in their schools.

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Classroom Assessment
For a broad definition, we consider assessment as “the process of collecting, synthesizing, and interpreting
information to aid classroom decision making” (Airasian, 1996). Assessments must match the content taught in
order for the students to demonstrate what they have learned. Effective assessments address the learning
objectives and the instructional emphasis when they are designed and implemented. Assessments should never
include topics or objectives not taught to the students. Also, assessments can never appraise everything that
students learn in class; they can only estimate what students have learned by sampling tasks from a much
larger possible range of tasks. Ideally, we, as teachers, try to address this limitation by giving students several
opportunities to show what they have learned through different media (e.g., answering tests and quiz items,
completing student sheets, collaborating in groups, presenting projects), and at different points during the
course of study, so that we get a broader view of the student’s understanding of the concepts and skills, rather
than a mere snapshot on what might be a bad day for the student.

During the process of learning science through inquiry in our classrooms, there are many opportunities to assess
student understanding. Assessment can include formal and informal assessments. Formal assessments examine
products such as written or oral responses (Pellegrino, 2001). These might include tests, quizzes, artifacts,
investigations, student sheets, and presentations, among other, tangible things. According to Pellegrino
informal assessments are “intuitive, often sub-conscious, reasoning teachers carry out everyday in classrooms.”
These might include checks for student understanding like classroom questioning and assessment conversations.
These informal assessments are more based on habits of mind from the teacher, as well as their abilities as
observers of learners.

Ideally, all of the assessments a teacher or school may conduct with students are formative in nature.
According to Black and William (1998) formative assessments encompass all those activities undertaken by
teachers, and/or by their students, that provide information to be used as feedback to modify the teaching
and learning activities in which they are engaged. The feedback component of assessments is critical.
However, many assessments have to be summative in nature in order to measure what students have learned at
the end of some set of learning activities and to assign a grade.

Classroom assessment may look at various “grain sizes” for teachers to better understand their students’
knowledge and depth of understanding of the content, processes and skills of science. Some assessments might
allow the teacher to get a glimpse into the individual thoughts of students and to be able to respond to each to
address their learning needs. Others might provide a broader view of the general understanding of small
groups, or the class as a whole. Either way, when a teacher develops and uses an assessment, they need to be
ready to analyze the work or responses of the student so that they can utilize this information to better craft
their own instruction. As a result, the teacher needs to look at a variety of factors within the design of the
individual assessment. These might include the type of learning desired, the nature of the understanding of
the content (and its place relative to the learning goals of the classroom), the prior knowledge or skills a
student might have to address a particular topic or task, and the ways in which the student communicates
their knowledge to others. As we focus on the design of assessments, we’ll look at each of these categories.

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Types of Learning
There is more than one type of learning. A committee of colleges, led by Benjamin Bloom, identified three
domains of educational activities:

• Cognitive: mental skills (Knowledge)

• Affective: growth in feelings or emotional areas (Attitude)
• Psychomotor: manual or physical skills (Skills)

Since the work was produced by higher education, the words tend to be a little bigger than we normally use.
Domains can be thought of as categories. Trainers often refer to these three domains as KSA (Knowledge, Skills,
and Attitude). This taxonomy of learning behaviors can be thought of as "the goals of the instructional process."
That is, after some amount of instruction, the student should have acquired new skills, knowledge, and/or
attitudes.

The committee also produced an elaborate compilation for the cognitive and affective domains, but none for
the psychomotor domain. This compilation divides the three domains into subdivisions, starting from the
simplest behavior to the most complex. The divisions outlined are not absolutes and there are other systems or
hierarchies that have been devised in the educational and training world. However, Bloom's taxonomy is easily
understood and is probably the most widely applied one in use today.

Cognitive
The cognitive domain involves knowledge and the development of intellectual skills. This includes the recall or
recognition of specific facts, procedural patterns, and concepts that serve in the development of intellectual
abilities and skills. There are six major
categories, which are listed in order below,
starting from the simplest behavior to the most
complex. The categories can be thought of as
degrees of difficulties. That is, the first one
must be mastered before the next one can take
place. The diagram, shown at right, helps Evaluation
illustrate these levels. The text that follows
provides some insight into the types of tasks or Synthesis
assessments we use, and what kind of language
we use to ask students to do these tasks. Analysis

Application

Comprehension

Knowledge

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 Cognitive Level (Description)
Knowledge: Recall data or
information.
Comprehension: Understand
the meaning, translation,
interpolation, and interpretation of
instructions and problems. State
a problem in one's own words
Application: Use a concept in a
new situation or unprompted use
of an abstraction. Applies what
was learned in the classroom into
novel situations in the work place.
Analysis: Separates material or
concepts into component parts
so that its organizational structure
may be understood.
Distinguishes between facts and
inferences.
Synthesis: Builds a structure or
pattern from diverse elements.
Put parts together to form a
whole, with emphasis on creating
a new meaning or structure.
Evaluation: Make judgments
about the value of ideas or
materials.
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Examples of a Task
Recite a policy. Quote prices
from memory to a customer.
Knows the safety rules.
Rewrites the principles of test
writing. Explain in one’s own
words the steps for
performing a complex task.
Translates an equation into a
computer spreadsheet.
Use a manual to calculate an
employee’s vacation time.
Apply laws of statistics to
evaluate the reliability of a
written test.
Troubleshoot a piece of
equipment by using logical
deduction. Recognize logical
fallacies in reasoning.
Gathers information from a
department and selects the
required tasks for training.
Write a company operations
or process manual. Design a
machine to perform a
specific task. Integrates
training from several sources
to solve a problem. Revises
and process to improve the
outcome.
Select the most effective
solution. Hire the most
qualified candidate. Explain
and justify a new budget.
Key Words and Directions
defines, describes, identifies,
knows, labels, lists, matches,
names, outlines, recalls, recognizes,
reproduces, selects, states
comprehends, converts, defends,
distinguishes, estimates, explains,
extends, generalizes, gives
Examples, infers, interprets,
paraphrases, predicts, rewrites,
summarizes, translates.
applies, changes, computes,
constructs, demonstrates,
discovers, manipulates, modifies,
operates, predicts, prepares,
produces, relates, shows, solves,
uses.
analyzes, breaks down, compares,
contrasts, diagrams, deconstructs,
differentiates, discriminates,
distinguishes, identifies, illustrates,
infers, outlines, relates, selects,
separates.
categorizes, combines, compiles,
composes, creates, devises,
designs, explains, generates,
modifies, organizes, plans,
rearranges, reconstructs, relates,
reorganizes, revises, rewrites,
summarizes, tells, writes.
appraises, compares, concludes,
contrasts, criticizes, critiques,
defends, describes, discriminates,
evaluates, explains, interprets,
justifies, relates, summarizes,
supports.
Affective
The affective domain addresses the manner in which we deal with things emotionally, such as feelings, values,
appreciation, enthusiasm, motivation, and attitudes. There are numerous organizing categories for this
domain, but the most commonly used is listed on the next page. Like the cognitive domain, these build upon
each other, with the first being the simplest and building to the most complex.

While the affective domain is often diminished or ignored in curriculum design or instruction, we need to
consider these categories, as they are often barriers to engagement for students, and can not only limit their
ability to build cognitive understanding of science, but also affect the effort and value a student may place on
science or education in the future. We know, for instance, that middle school is generally the first time that
students fully express frustration and lack of satisfaction in their learning of mathematics and science.

Psychomotor
The psychomotor domain includes physical movement, coordination, and the use of motor-skill areas.
Development of these skills requires practice and is measured in terms of speed, precision, distance,
procedures, or techniques in execution. The table on page 8 highlights these categories from simplest to most
complex.

While these abilities may often seem to be more of an issues in the early grades of school (pre-adolescent
children), they are still developing through adulthood, and are enhanced with practice. In science instruction,
it is often crucial to include tasks that develop these skills when considering the many measurement and
experimentation activities that are typically done in the sciences.

REFERENCE
1. Bloom B. S. (1956). Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, Handbook I: The Cognitive Domain. New
York: David McKay Co Inc.
2. Krathwohl, D. R., Bloom, B. S., & Bertram, B. M. (1973). Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, the
Classification of Educational Goals. Handbook II: Affective Domain. New York: David McKay Co., Inc.
3. Simpson E. J. (1972). The Classification of Educational Objectives in the Psychomotor Domain.
Washington, DC: Gryphon House.
4. Dave, R. H. (1975). Developing and Writing Behavioural Objectives. (R J Armstrong, ed.) Educational
Innovators Press.
5. Harrow, Anita (1972) A taxonomy of psychomotor domain: a guide for developing behavioral objectives.
New York: David McKay.

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Affective Domain Levels
Affective Category (Description) Examples of a Task Key Words and
Directions

Receiving Phenomena: Listen to others with respect. Listen asks, chooses, describes,
Awareness, willingness to hear, for and remember the name of follows, gives, holds,
selected attention. newly introduced people. identifies, locates, names,
points to, selects, sits,
erects, replies, uses.

Responding to Phenomena: Participates in class discussions. answers, assists, aids,

Active participation for students.
The student attends and reacts to
specific phenomena. Learning
outcomes focus on compliance in
responding, willingness to respond,
and satisfaction in responding
(motivation).
Gives a presentation. Questions
new ideals, concepts, models, etc.
in order to fully understand them.
Knows and practices safety rules.
complies, conforms,
discusses, greets, helps,
labels, performs, practices,
presents, reads, recites,
reports, selects, tells,
writes.

Valuing: The worth a person Demonstrates belief in the completes, demonstrates,

attaches to an object,
phenomenon, or behavior. Ranges
from acceptance to commitment.
Based on how a person internalizes
a set of specific values. Clues to
these are expressed in the
student’s behavior
democratic process. Sensitive
toward individual and group
differences. Shows the ability to
solve problems in social interaction.
Proposes a plan to social
improvement and follows through.
differentiates, explains,
follows, forms, initiates,
invites, joins, justifies,
proposes, reads, reports,
selects, shares, studies,
works

Organization: Organizes values
into priorities by contrasting
different values, resolving conflicts
between them, and creating a
unique value system. Emphasis is
on comparing, relating, and
synthesizing values.
Recognizes the need for balance adheres, alters, arranges,
between freedom and responsible combines, compares,
behavior. Accepts responsibility for completes, defends,
one’s behavior. Explains the role of explains, formulates,
systematic planning in solving generalizes, identifies,
problems. Accepts professional integrates, modifies,
ethical standards. Prioritizes time orders, organizes,
effectively to meet the needs of the prepares, relates,
organization, family, and self. synthesizes

Internalizing Values: Has a value
system that controls behavior.
Behavior is pervasive, consistent,
predictable, and most importantly,
characteristic of the student.
Instructional objectives for this level
are concerned with student’s
patterns of adjustment (personal,
social, emotional)
Shows self-reliance when working acts, discriminates,
independently. Cooperates in group displays, influences,
activities (displays teamwork). Uses listens, modifies, performs,
an objective approach in problem practices, proposes,
solving. Revises judgements and qualifies, questions,
changes behavior in light of new revises, serves, solves,
evidence. Values people for what verifies
they are, not how they look.

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Psychomotor Domain Levels
Skill Level (Description)
Perception: Ability to use sensory
cures to guide motor activity.
Ranges from sensory stimulation
to translation.
Set: Readiness to act. In includes
mental, physical, and emotional
sets. These sets are dispositions
that predetermine a person’s
response to different situations
(i.e. “mindsets”).
Guided Response: Early stage in
learning a complex skill that
includes imitation and trial and
error. Adequacy is achieved by
practice.
Mechanism: Intermediate stage
of learning a complex skill.
Learned responses are habitual
and movements performed with
confidence and proficiency.
Complex Overt Response:
Skillful performance of motor acts
involving complex movement
patters. Quick, accurate and
highly coordinated performance
with minimum energy show
proficiency. Generally automatic
performance
Adaptation: Skills are well
developed and the individual can
modify movement patterns to fit
specific requirements.
Origination: Creating new
movement patterns to fit a
particular situation or specific
problem. Learning outcomes
emphasize creativity based on
highly developed skills.
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Examples of a Task
Detects non-verbal
communication cues. Estimate
where a ball will land after thrown
and the move to the correct
location to catch the ball. Adjusts
heat of stove to correct temp. by
smell and taste of food.
Knows and acts upon a sequence
of steps in creating an object.
Recognizes abilities and
limitations. Shows desire to learn
a new process.
Performs a mathematical equation
as demonstrated. Follows
instructions to build a model.
Uses a personal computer. Repair
a leaking faucet. Drive a car.
Maneuver a car into a tight parallel
parking spot. Operate a computer
quickly and accurately. Display
competence while playing the
piano.
Respond effectively to unexpected
experiences. Modify instruction to
meet the needs of the learners.
Perform a task with a machine
that it was not intended to do.
Constructs a new theory.
Develops a new and
comprehensive training program.
Creates a new dance or
gymnastic routine.
Key Words and Directions
chooses, describes, detects,
differentiates, distinguishes,
identifies, isolates, relates,
selects
begins, displays, explains,
moves, proceeds, reacts,
shows, states, volunteers
copies, traces, follows,
reacts, reproduce, responds
assembles, builds, calibrates,
constructs, dismantles,
displays, fastens, fixes,
grinds, heats, manipulates,
measures, mends, mixes,
organizes, sketches
(Note: key words are the
same for mechanism complex
overt response, but for the
latter, adverbs or adjectives
indicate performance - i.e.
quicker, better, more
accurate, etc.
adapts, alters, changes,
rearranges, reorganizes,
revises, varies.
arranges, builds, combines,
composes, constructs,
creates, designs, initiates,
makes, originates.
Techniques for Assessing Course-Related Knowledge and Skills
Assessing Prior Knowledge, Recall, and Understanding
Background Knowledge Probe - Short, simple questionnaires prepared by instructors for use at the beginning of
a course, at the start of a new unit or lesson, or prior to introducing an important new topic. Used to help
teachers determine the most effective starting point for a given lesson and the most appropriate level at which
to begin new instruction.

Focused Listing - Focuses students' attention on a single important term, name , or concept from a particular
lesson or class session and directs them to list several ideas that are closely related to that "focus point." Used
to determine what learners recall as the most important points related to a particular topic.

Misconception/Preconception Check - Technique used for gathering information on prior knowledge or beliefs
that may hinder or block further learning.

Empty Outlines - The instructor provides students with an empty or partially completed outline of an in-class
presentation or homework assignment and gives them a limited amount of time to fill in the blank spaces. Used
to help faculty find out how well students have "caught" the important points of a lecture, reading, or
audiovisual presentation.

Memory Matrix - A simple two-dimensional diagram, a rectangle divided into rows and columns used to organize
information and illustrate relationships. Assesses students' recall of important course content and their skill at
quickly organizing that information into categories provided by the instructor.

Minute Paper - Instructor asks students to respond in two or three minutes to either of the following questions:
"What was the most important thing you learned during this class? or "What important questions remains
unanswered?" Used to provide a quick and extremely simple way to collect written feedback on student
learning.

Muddiest Point - Technique consists of asking students to jot down a quick response to one question: "What was
the muddiest point in ?" with the focus on the lecture, a discussion, a homework assignment, a play, or a film.
Used to provide information on what students find least clear or most confusing about a particular lesson or
topic.

Assessing Skill in Analysis and Critical Thinking

Categorizing Grid - Students sort information into appropriate conceptual categories. This provides faculty with
feedback to determine quickly whether, how, and how well students understand "what goes with what."

Defining Features Matrix - Students are required to categorize concepts according to the presence (+) or
absence (-) of important defining features. This provides data on their analytic reading and thinking skills.

Pro and Con Grid - Students list pros and cons of an issue. This provides information on the depth and breadth
of a student's ability to analyze and on their capacity for objectivity.

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Content, Form, and Function Outlines - Students analyze the "what" (content), "how" (form), and
"why" (function) of a particular message. This technique elicits information on the students' skills at separating
and analyzing the informational content, the form, and the communicative function of a lesson or message.

Analytic Memos - Students write a one- or two-page analysis of a specific problem or issue. Used to assess
students' skill at communicating their analyses in a clear and concise manner.

Assessing Skill in Syntheses and Critical Thinking

One-Sentence Summary - Students answer the questions "Who does what to whom, when, where, how , and
why?" about a given topic, and then synthesize those answers into a single informative, grammatical, and long
summary sentence.

Word Journal - Students first summarize a short text in a single word, and second, the student writes a
paragraph or two explaining why he chose that particular word to summarize the text. This technique helps
faculty assess and improve the students' ability to read carefully and deeply and the students' skill at explaining
and defending, in just a few more words, their choice for a single summary word.

Approximate Analogies - Students complete the second half of an analogy for which the instructor has supplied
the first half. This allows teachers to find out whether their students understand the relationship between the
two concepts or terms given as the first part of the analogy.

Concept Maps - Drawings or diagrams showing the mental connections that students make between a major
concept the instructor focuses on and other concepts they have learned. This provides an observable and
assessable record of the students' conceptual schema-the patterns of associations they make in relation to a
given focal concept.

Invented Dialogues - Students synthesize their knowledge of issues, personalities, and historical periods into
the form of a carefully structured, illustrative conversation. This provides information on students' ability to
capture the essence of other people's personalities and styles of expression - as well as on their understanding
of theories, controversies, and the opinions of others.

Annotated Portfolios - Contain a very limited number of selected examples of a student's creative work,
supplemented by the student's own commentary on the significance of those examples.

Assessing Skill in Problem Solving

Problem Recognition Tasks - Students are provided with a few examples of common problem types and are
asked to recognize and identify the particular type of problem each example represents. Faculty are able to
assess how well students can recognize various problem types, the first step in matching problem type to
solution method.

What's the Principle? - Students are provided with a few problems and are asked to state the principle that best
applies to each problem. Instructors assess students' ability to associate specific problems with the general
principles used to solve them.

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Documented Problem Solutions - Prompts students to keep track of the steps they take in solving a problem.
This assesses how students solve problems and how well students understand and can describe their problem-
solving methods.

Audio- and Videotaped Protocols - Students are recorded talking and working through the process of solving a
problem. Faculty assess in detail how and how well students solve problems.

Assessing Skill in Application and Performance

Directed Paraphrasing - Students paraphrase part of a lesson for a specific audience and purpose, using their
own words. Feedback is provided on students' ability to summarize and restate important information or
concepts in their own words; it allows faculty to assess how well students have understood and internalized
that learning.

Applications Cards - Students write down at least one possible, real-world application for an important
principle, generalization, theory, or procedure that they just learned. This lets faculty know how well students
understand the possible applications of what students have learned.

Student-Generated Test Questions - Students are asked to develop test questions from material they have been
taught. Teachers see what their students consider the most important or memorable content, what they
understand as fair and useful test questions, and how well they can answer the questions they have posed.

Human Tableau or Class Modeling - Groups of students create "living" scenes or model processes to show what
they know. Students demonstrate their ability to apply what they know by performing it.

Paper or Project Prospectus - A prospectus is a brief, structured first-draft plan for a term paper or term
project. The Paper Prospectus prompts students to thin through elements of the assignment, such as the topic,
purpose, intended audience, major questions to be answered, basic organization, and time and resources
required. The Project Prospectus focuses on tasks to be accomplished, skills to be improved, and products to
be developed.

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Techniques for Assessing Learner Attitudes,Values, and Self-Awareness

Assessing Students' Awareness of Their Attitudes and Values

Classroom Opinion Polls - Students are asked to raise their hands to indicate agreement or disagreement with a
particular statement. Faculty discover student opinions about course-related issues.

Double-Entry Journals - Students begin by noting the ideas, assertions, and arguments in their assigned course
readings they find most meaningful and/or controversial. The second entry explains the personal significance
of the passage selected and responds to that passage. Detailed feedback is provided on how students read,
analyze, and respond to assigned texts.

Profiles of Admirable Individuals - Students are required to write a brief, focused profile of an individual - in a
field related to the course - whose values, skills, or actions they greatly admire. This technique helps faculty
understand the images and values students associate with the best practice and practitioners in the discipline.

Everyday Ethical Dilemmas - Students are presented with an abbreviated case study that poses an ethical
problem related to the discipline or profession they are studying and must respond briefly and anonymously to
these cases. Students identify, clarify, and connect their values by responding to course-related issues and
problems that they are likely to encounter. Faculty get honest reactions and information on what students'
values are and how they apply them to realistic dilemmas.

Course-Related Self-Confidence Surveys - Students answer a few simple questions aimed at getting a rough
measure of the students' self-confidence in relation to a specific skill or ability. Faculty assess their students'
level of confidence in their ability to learn the relevant skills and material and can more effectively structure
assignments that will build confidence in relation to specific tasks.

Assessing Students' Self-Awareness as Learners

Focused Autobiographical Sketches - Students are directed to write a one- or two- page autobiographical sketch
focused on a single successful learning experience in their past - an experience relevant to learning in the
particular course in which the assessment technique is used. This provides information the the students' self-
concept and self- awareness as learners within a specific field.

Interest/Knowledge/Skills Checklist - Students rate their interest in various topics, and assess their levels of
skill or knowledge in those topics, by indicating the appropriate responses on a checklist which has been
created by the teacher. These checklists inform teachers of their students' level of interest in course topics and
their assessment of the skills and knowledge needed for and/or developed through the course.

Goal Ranking and Matching - Students list a few learning goals they hope to achieve through the course and
rank the relative importance of those goals.. This assesses the "degree of fit" between the students' personal
learning goals and teachers' course-specific instructional goals, and between the teachers' and students' ranking
of the relative importance and difficulty of the goals.

Self-Assessment of Ways of Learning - Students describe their general approaches to learning, or their learning
styles, by comparing themselves with several different profiles and choosing those that, in their opinion, most
closely resemble them. This provides teachers with a simple way to assess students' learning styles or
preferences for ways of learning.

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Assessing Course-Related Learning and Study Skills, Strategies, and Behaviors
Productive Study-Time Logs - Students keep a record of how much time they spend studying for a particular
class, when they study, and how productively they study at various times of the day or night. This allows
faculty to assess the amount and quality of out-of-class time all their students are spending preparing for class,
and to share that information with students.

Punctuated Lectures - Students and teachers go through five steps: listen, stop, reflect, write, and give
feedback. Students listen to lecture. The teacher stops the action and students reflect on what they were
doing during the presentation and how their behavior while listening may have helped or hindered their
understanding of that information. They then write down any insights they have gained and they give feedback
to the teacher in the form of short, anonymous notes. This technique provides immediate, on-the-spot
feedback on how students are learning from a lecture or demonstration and lets teachers and students know
what may be distracting. And students are encouraged to become self-monitoring listeners, and in the process,
more aware and more effective learners.

Process Analysis - Students keep records of the actual steps they take in carrying out a representative
assignment and comment on the conclusions they draw about their approaches to that assignment. This
technique gives students and teachers explicit, detailed information on the ways in which students carry out
assignments and shows faculty which elements of the process are most difficult for students and, consequently,
where teachers need to offer more instruction and direction.

Diagnostic Learning Logs - Students keep records of each class or assignment and write one list of the main
points covered that they understood and a second list of points that were unclear. Faculty are provided with
information and insight into their students' awareness of and skill at identifying their own strengths and
weaknesses as learners.

Techniques for Assessing Learner Reactions for Instruction

Assessing Learner Reactions to Teachers and Teaching

Chain Notes - Students write immediate, spontaneous reactions to questions given by the teacher while the
class is in progress. This feedback gives the teacher a "sounding" of the students' level of engagement and
involvement during lecture.

Electronic Mail Feedback - Students respond anonymously by E-mail to a question posed by the teacher to the
class. This provides a simple, immediate channel through which faculty can pose questions about the class and
students can respond to them.

Teacher-Designed Feedback Forms - Students answer questions on feedback forms which contain anywhere
from three to seven questions in multiple-choice, Likert-scale, or short fill-in answer formats. These forms
allow faculty to quickly and easily analyze data and use the results to make informed and timely adjustments
in their teaching.

GPS Phase III - Assessing Student Understanding

in Science



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REFERENCES
• Angelo, Thomas A. and Cross, K. Patricia. Classroom Assessment Techniques: A Handbook for
College Teachers; 1993, Jossey-Bass, Inc.
• Axelrod, Valija M., and Hedges, Lowell E. Assessing Learning. Instructional Materials Laboratory; 1995.
• Halpern and Associates. Changing College Classrooms: New Teaching and Learning Strategies for an
Increasingly Complex World, Jossey-Bass, Inc., 1994, San Francisco, CA.
• Hilgerson, Karin M. Achieving Equity and Excellence Through Improved Assessment, Oregon School
Study Council; April 1994.
• Sandifer, Everette Jr.; Evaluating and Recording Student Achievement in Education; Appalachian
Regional Commission; May 1981.

GPS Phase III - Assessing Student Understanding

in Science



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