Carbohydrate Metabolism
CARBOHYDRATE DIGESTION AND
Multiple Roles of Carbohydrates in All
Forms of Life:
1. CHO serves as energy stores, fuels
and metabolic intermediates. It is the
preferred source of energy by the
organism –gives 4kcal/gm, 36 or 38
moles of ATP per mole of glucose.
2. Ribose and deoxyribose sugars form
part of the structural framework of
DNA and RNA.
3. Polysaccharides are structural
elements in the cell walls of bacteria
and plants, and in the exoskeletons of
arthropods.
Cellulose is the main constituent of
plant cell walls; it is the most abundant
organic compound in the biosphere.
4. CHO are linked to many proteins
and lipids forming glycoconjugates
(proteoglycans, glycoproteins,
glycolipids) which can serve as
recognition sites for hormones,
antigen specificity, etc.
5. CHO can generate reducing
equivalents in the form of NADPH,
which is essential in the biosynthesis of
important cellular components like
lipids, steroids, DNA, etc.
ABSORPTION
60% - starches and dextrins. Starch is a
glucosan or glycan (composed of
glucose ONLY)
HOMOPOLYSACCHARIDE; most
important food source of CHO:
30% - sucrose
5% - lactose
5% - other sugars
A. Digestion in the MOUTH
- ENZYME: Salivary Amylase or
PTYALIN
- Bonds acted upon: alpha 1,4-
glycosidic linkages of
amylopectin and amylase
- Optimum pH: 6-7 (readily
inactivated at pH4.0 or less)
- End products: limit dextrin and
maltose
B. Digestion in the STOMACH
- No enzymatic digestion (due to
acidity)
- Limited acid hydrolysis
C. Digestion in the SMALL INTESTINES
- ENZYME: Pancreatic Amylase or
AMYLOPSIN
- Alpha-limit dextrinase
 - Sucrase
- Lactase (β-galactosidase)
- Maltase (α-glucosidase)
- Isomaltase (α1,6-glucosidase)
*IRREVERSIBLE reaction.

END PRODUCT OF CHO DIGESTION: *meaning you cannot use the same

Monosaccharides (principally enzyme for the forward and backward.

GLUCOSE) *It is possible to convert GLUCOSE-6-

PHOSPHATE → GLUCOSE using
ABSORPTION OF CARBOHYDRATES another enzyme (Glucose-6-
Rate of monosaccharide absorption: Phosphatase, which is only found in
(MOST rapid to LEAST rapidly the liver); conversion is only done in
absorbed) the liver.
Galactose → Glucose → Fructose →
Mannose → Pentoses *The reaction above is a
PHOSPHORYLATION REACTION.
Fates of Ingested Glucose:
- 50% - converted to energy (glycolysis)
HEXOKINASE GLUCOKINASE
- 30-40% - converted to fats
Low Km for High Km for
- 10% - converted to glycogen (stored glucose glucose
in muscles and liver) - can act even - function only
glucose level is when the
LOW concentration of
*INSULIN: facilitates entry of glucose glucose is high
- cannot act if
inside the cell. EXCEPT in LIVER CELLS; glucose level is low
glucose can enter the liver cell even
Inhibited by high Not inhibited by
without insulin because liver is the levels of glucose- glucose-6-
most important organ for the control 6-phosphate phosphate
(feedback
of blood sugar. inhibition)

Acts on other Acts on glucose

FIRST REACTION undergone by hexoses general ONLY
enzyme(fructose,
GLUCOSE once inside the cells:
mannose etc)

- Enzymes are NOT used at the
same time. FIRST- Hexokinase
- FEEDBACK INHIBITION: the
enzyme is inhibited by its own
product.
- Once hexokinase is inhibited by
↑ glucose-6-phosphate,
glucokinase is the only one will
act.
Fate of GLUCOSE-6-PHOSPHATE:
1. Conversion to GLYCOGEN for
storage (10%)
2. Enters GLYCOLYSIS (50%)
3. Conversion to fatty acids and
cholesterol
4. Conversion to blood glucose
5. Oxidative degradation to CO2 →
energy formation (KREB’S
CYCLE)
-continuation of #2; for maximum
energy production
6. Degradation via HMP shunt
7. Enters uronic acid pathway
GLYCOLYSIS: “Embden-Meyerhof-
Parnas Pathway”
- Gustav Embden, Otto Meyerhof,
Jacob Parnas
- Major pathway for the utilization
of glucose; found in all cells
- Unique pathway: can utilize
oxygen if available (AEROBIC);
can still function in the absence
of oxygen (ANAEROBIC)
- Converts GLUCOSE to
PYRUVATE (AEROBIC end-
product) and LACTATE
(ANAEROBIC end product) with
concomitant production of ATP
- Location: CYTOSOL
- “Basically” an EXERGONIC
process (production of ATP)
-meaning there is a part in the
pathway that is endergonic and
exergonic.
➔ Exergonic (ATP production) is
more than endergonic (ATP is
used).
FUNCTIONS of Glycolysis:
- To produce energy in the form
of ATP
- Intermediates formed can be
converted to other substances
like amino acids, fatty acids, etc.
TWO PHASES OF GLYCOLYSIS
1. Energy INVESTMENT phase;
PRIMING STAGE
 - Endergonic Glucose → Fructose
1,6-bisphosphate
2. Energy GENERATION phase;
ENERGY RECOVERY PHASE
- Exergonic; Production of ATP
A. SPLITTING STAGE Fructose 1,6-
bisphosphate → DHAP +
glyceraldehydes-3-PO
B. OXIDOREDUCTION-
PHOSPHORYLATION STAGE
glyceraldehydes-3-PO4→
Pyruvate or Lactate
“IN GLYCOLYSIS, all the IRREVERSIBLE
STEPS are CONTROL POINTS!”
CONTROL POINT:
- if you want to STIMULATE the
pathway, stimulate the enzymes
of the control point.
- if you want to INHIBIT the
pathway, inhibit the enzymes of
the control point.
1. ENERGY INVESTMENT PHASE
(PRIMING STAGE)
- FIRST REACTION: (1st)
Irreversible
- ENZYME: Hexokinase,
Glucokinase
- use of 1 ATP
- Phosphorylation reaction
2. SECOND REACTION: Reversible
- ISOMERIZATION REACTION: an
aldose is converted into a ketose
or vice versa
Ex: Glucose-6-phosphate ↔ Fructose-6-
phosphate
-ENZYME: Phosphoglucose Isomerase
3. THIRD REACTION: (2nd) Irreversible
- use of 1 ATP
- Phosphorylation reaction
- RATE LIMITNG STEP
(Committed Step) -most
important CONTROL POINT of
the pathway
- RATE LIMITING
- ENZYME: Phosphofructokinase
1 (PFK 1)
SUMMARY:
A. There are 2 IRREVERSIBLE
steps.
B. 2 ATPs are used.
C. No ATP production.
II. ENERGY GENERATION PHASE
A. SPLITTING STAGE
 - FOURTH REACTION: Fructose-1-
6-Bisphosphate (6 carbons)
SPLITS into 2 sugars:
Dihydroxyacetone phosphate (3
carbons)
Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (3
carbons)
- SPLITTING ENZYME: Aldolase
(aldo-cleavage)
- Dihydroxyacetone (DHAP)
phosphate and Glyceraldehyde-
3-phosphate are
INTERCONVERTIBLE.
- ISOMERIZATION REACTION
B. OXIDOREDUCTION-
PHOSPHORYLATION STAGE
- whatever happens to
Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate,
also happens to DHAP
- energy produced in
Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate,
MULTIPLY by 2.
FIFTH REACTION:
- conversion of Glyceraldehyde-3-
phosphate → 1,3 Diphosphoglycerate
ENZYME: Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate
Dehydrogenase
- produces NADH (whenever NADH is
produced, it has to go back to NAD so
that the pathway will go on; if NAD+
were not regenerated, glycolysis could
not proceed beyond glyceraldehyde-3-
phosphate, which means no ATP
would be generated.)
- H + is given to Electron Transport
Chain (ETC) in the mitochondria
- from the CYTOSOL, it has to go to the
MITOCHONDRIA through a shuttle
system.
SHUTTLE SYSTEM: Malate-Aspartate
(Complex1); Glycerol-3-phosphate
(Complex2) – MASS: 3 ATP produced x2
= 6 ATP
G3PSS: 2 ATP produced x2 = 4 ATP
SIXTH REACTION:
1,3 Diphosphoglycerate → 3-
phosphoglycerate
ENZYME: Phosphoglycerate Kinase
- 1 ATP produced x2 =2 ATP
SUBSTRATE LEVEL OF
PHOSPHORYLATION: energy
production even without entering ETC
SEVENTH REACTION:
3-phosphoglycerate→2-phosphoglycerate
ENZYME: Phosphoglyceromutase
EIGHTH REACTION:
2-
phosphoglycerate→Phosphoenolpyruv
ate
ENZYME: Enolase
Enolase is inhibited by FLUORIDE
- DEHYDRATION STEP
NINTH REACTION: (3rd) Irreversible
- Phosphoenolpyruvate →
Pyruvate
ENZYME: Pyruvate Kinase
- 1 ATP produced x2 =2 ATP
SUBSTRATE LEVEL OF
PHOSPHORYLATION
SUMMARY:
2 substrate level of phosphorylation
- 1st – catalyzed by
Phosphoglycerate Kinase (Sixth
reaction)
- 2nd – catalyzed by Pyruvate
Kinase (Ninth reaction)
1 oxidative phosphorylation
- Fifth reaction
3 irreversible steps = CONTROL
POINTS!
- First reaction (catalyzed by
Hexokinase, Glucokinase)
- Third reaction (catalyzed by
Phosphofructokinase 1) –RATE
LIMITING STEP
- Ninth reaction (catalyzed by
Pyruvate Kinase)
➔ If it becomes ANAEROBIC (No
ETC), NADH will be used to
convert PYRUVATE → LACTATE.
➔ ENZYME: Lactate
Dehydrogenase
➔ In ANAEROBIC GLYCOLYSIS,
end-product is LACTATE.
ENZYMATIC CONTROL OF
GLYCOLYSIS:
- Inhibit/Stimulate at CONTROL
POINTS
1. HEXOKINASE
- Inhibited by Glucose-6-
phosphate
2. PHOSPHOFRUCTOKINASE 1
(PFK1)
- MAJOR CONTROL ENZYME of
glycolysis
3. PYRUVATE KINASE
INHIBITORS OF THE GLYCOLYTIC
PATHWAY
 1. 2-DEOXYGLUCOSE - catalyzed by Pyruvate
- Inhibits HEXOKINASE Dehydrogenase Complex (has 5
2. SULFHYDRYL REAGENTS steps of reactions)
(iodoacetate)
- Inhibits GLYCERALDEHYDE-3-
PHOSPHATE DEHYDROGENASE
3. FLUORIDE
- Inhibits ENOLASE (catalyzes the
dehydration step)
4. 4 PENTAVALENT ARSENIC or
ARSENATE
- Inhibits PYRUVATE
DEHYDROGENASE, and α-
KETOGLUTARATE
DEHYDROGENASE

FATES OF PYRUVIC ACID

1. Reversible reduction to LACTATE
- if the condition is ANAEROBIC
2. Conversion back to GLUCOSE
3. Formation of OXALOACETATE or
MALATE
4. Transamination to form ALANINE
- Pyruvate + Amino group =
Alanine
5. Oxidative decarboxylation to Acetyl
CoA
- MAJOR FATE OF PYRUVIC ACID
- it will be converted to Acetyl
CoA