7AAD0021

Control of Mechanical Systems

INVERTED PENDULUM, BRIEF

Typically, the process industries are concerned with obtaining quicker response with
near critical damping from slow systems and many mechanical systems have the same
requirements, differing only in time scale. Generally these are systems with real,
negative plant poles. Another common class of mechanical systems have lightly
damped or undamped complex plant poles or unstable poles. In these cases the task of
the control system designer is to stabilize and damp the system response. Often speed
of response is sacrificed to gain otherwise acceptable behavior. Modern aircraft tend to
have a pair of lightly damped complex poles and a pair of real poles with one being close
to the origin in either the left or right (unstable) half plane. The Bytronic apparatus has a
lightly damped pair of poles when the pendulum hangs down and two real poles with one
of them unstable when the pendulum is upright.

In order to design a compensator and predict performance, the transfer function of each
block in the block diagram of Figure 1 must be identified:

1. Identify Gp(s), the transfer function of the pendulum in both the upright and hanging
configuration. Adjust the mass so that it is flush with the end of the rod. The length of a
pendulum is the distance from the pivot centerline to the center of mass. The center of
mass can be found by unscrewing it from the carriage and finding where it balances.

The mathematical model is easily derived for the upright pendulum and the model of the
hanging pendulum is obtained by changing the sign of the acceleration due to gravity.
Applying Newton’s law in the vertical and horizontal directions produces two equations.
Using one equation to eliminate the tension T results in one nonlinear, second-order
differential equation relating input motion x(t) and plumb-bob angle θ(t). Show that one
gets

d 2θ d 2x
L + cos θ − g sin θ = 0
dt 2 dt 2 .

Solve for the second derivative of θ(t) and isolate the nonlinearity in function f. Then
expand f in a Taylor series and truncate after the first-order terms to get an approximate
linear model in terms of perturbation variables Θ and X. Show that the plant transfer
function is

&& −s2 / L
&& = g Θ − X
Θ → G ( s) = 2
L L s −g/L

Include all of the steps and assumptions required to get to this result. The poles of this
plant transfer function are clearly real with one positive and one negative, since g and L
obviously have positive real values. So the upright pendulum is unstable when near the
vertical position.
If the sign of the acceleration due to gravity is reversed, the poles of the plant
transfer function become imaginary and the model is that of a pure oscillator with an
undamped natural frequency of ωn = g / L . With a storage oscilloscope, measure
the period of free vibration when the pendulum is in the hanging orientation and
calculate L. Does this agree with the length of the pendulum as measured directly?
Real mechanical systems are never completely free of energy dissipation. If we
assume viscous damping is the dominant energy loss mechanism, we can use the
logarithmic decrement method to estimate the viscous damping.

The logarithmic decrement, δ, can be computed from two amplitudes, x1 and xn+1,
separated by n complete cycles and, for lightly damped systems, the damping factor
, ζ, can be estimated from the log decrement. Use an oscilloscope to look at θ(t)
during free vibration.

1  x1  δ
δ = ln   ζ ≈
n  xn +1  2π

The damping should be small but not zero. Thus we add to the denominator of both
plant transfer functions a damping term

s 2 ± ωn2 → s 2 ± 2ζωn s ± ωn2

Strictly speaking, what was measured was ωd, but you can check to see that the
correction is indeed small enough to be neglected

ωd = 1 − ζ 2 ωn .

Now the plant model is complete for both configurations (Inv Pend/Gantry Crane)

− (ωn2 / g ) s 2
G p ( s) = rad / inch
s 2 + 2ζωn s + ωn2

where g must be expressed in units of inches/sec2 if Gp is to have units of

radians/inch. The next task is to determine the characteristics of the internal servo
loop.
2. Identify Gs(s), the transfer function of the servo and carriage subsystem. Unscrew
the pendulum and set it aside. Connect a function generator to the input of the servo
control loop (terminal H) and drive it with a 1 Hz square wave at an amplitude that
moves the carriage through a range of about two inches. Observe the carriage
position on the PicoScope. Don’t drive the carriage continuously back and forth
unnecessarily. This apparatus isn’t very robust

Adjust the servo gain and the velocity feedback to achieve critically damped
response. Record the knob settings so you can go back to them if they get moved.
Are the knob settings amplitude dependent? Switch the function generator to
sinewave output and obtain enough of a Bode plot to determine the transfer function
of the servo and carriage subsystem from terminal H to terminal J1. Since you know
the subsystem is critically damped. It is enough to establish the slope and value of
the low frequency asymptote and the bandwidth, assuming the transfer function
iszero order in s in the numerator and second order in s in the denominator.
Unfortunately, the output wave form is not sinusoidal, indicating that the servo
subsystem is nonlinear. Indeed it is, due to hysteresis.

The bandwidth, the frequency at which the amplitude is one half the low frequency
amplitude, is on the order of 1 to 6 Hz. Since the system is critically damped, ζ=0.7,
the bandwidth and ωn are equal. Don’t mix Hz and radians/second. The closed-loop
transfer function of the internal servo and carriage loop is

ωn2
Gs ( s) = 2
s + 2ζωn s + ωns .

3. Determine Kr, the conversion factor from tick marks on the setpoint slider to
voltage. Use the PicoScope to Measure this Voltage.
4. Determine Kx, the conversion factor from carriage-position feedback voltage to
inches. Do this by driving the carriage by connecting a wire from the setpoint slider
(terminal A) to the servo amplifier input (terminal H) and measuring position with a
scale or tape measure.

5. Determine Kp, the conversion from pendulum angle to volts. Do this by measuring
Vθ (terminal K) and the angle of the pendulum.

6. Determine Ka, the constant used to calculate the center of gravity position Vy from
carriage position Vx and pendulum angle Vθ.

Vy = Vx + K aVθ

Since Vx cannot be scaled, Vy must be scaled so that it also has the same scale (so
that when the carriage is stationary, but the center of mass moves one inch, Vy has
the same value as when the carriage moves one inch but the pendulum angle
remains zero). The value calculated for Ka will be used to set the scaling
potentiometer. It is important that this value be correct. Verify your results by seeing
that Vy (terminal L) does not change when the carriage is moved, but the center of
mass position remains stationary.

Simulation & Modelling

1. Model the system using simulink.
2. Confirm the open-loop characteristics
3. Determine the Transfer function of the compensator.

For the Tasks below, Use MATLAB.

Compensator Design and Verification

Complete the following work for the system in both the upright and hanging
configurations.

1. Obtain the root locus for the system (both) without compensator. For each case:
(a) can the system be stabilized by setting Kc? (b) what kind of stable performance
can be achieved (overshoot, settling time, etc.)?

2. Design a compensator for each configuration using the two parallel RC plugs
provided. Note that the compensator is an OpAmp wired in an inverting
configuration with a gain of –Zf/Zi. The console denotes the open loop OpAmp gain
as –A because the internal wiring of the console inverts the gain to make the
compensator gain Zf/Zi. What type of compensator did you choose and why? What
is the compensator transfer function?

3. Obtain the root locus plot for both systems with the compensators included. For
each case, what range of Kc results in stable operation? Plot step responses for
several values of Kc. Include the following trials: (a) all marginally stable values, (b)
a value to produce quick settling, (c) a value to produce low overshoot, (d) a good
compromise (use your judgement, but describe what you are trying to accomplish)
and (e) a value that ensures stability in the face of parameter variation (a robust
design).

4. For both configurations, wire up the control system using your compensator
designs and test the response using the values of Kc chosen above. How does the
system perform in comparison to your theoretical expectations? Any surprises?
Explain any differences you see.

5. Simulate the effects of non-linearities, and confirm the results on the rig,
comment on the accuracy of the simulation.