Compurrrs & Srrucrures Vol. 54. No. 4. pp.

587-595, 1995
Copyright 1’ 1995 Elsevier Science Ltd
Printed m Great Britam. All rights reserved
00457949(94)00380-7
0045.7949/95 $9.50 + 0.00

CRITICAL DISTANCE FOR BLAST-RESISTANT DESIGN

M. V. Dharaneepathy,? M. N. Keshava Raot and A. R. Santhakumarzf

tStructura1 Engineering Research Centre, Madras 600 113, India
$Department of Structural Engineering, Anna University, Madras, India

(Received 19 October 1993)

Abstract-Blast loads have, in the recent past, become important service loads for certain categories of
structures. An important task in blast-resistant design is to make a realistic prediction of the blast
pressures. The distance of explosion from the structure is an important datum, governing the magnitude
and duration of the blast loads. The current practice is to choose some arbitrary distance for design
purposes. This paper presents some results of analytical studies to show that such a notion is likely to
be erroneous, particularly for tall and slender structures. The elements of the blast phenomenon are
reviewed, before going into the formulations leading to the ‘critical blast distance’ at which the transient
dynamic response rises to a maximum. Based on the principle of Mach stem growth and consequent
transformation of the spherical shock front into cylindrical or plane shock front, an expression for the
distance at which the structure is fully engulfed by the Mach region is derived. This is the distance at which
the cumulative blast effect reaches a maximum, and hence can be identified as critical distance. To verify
this theory, certain numerical experiments are conducted on structures of different heights and diameters,
such as cylindrical towers, a chimney and a cooling tower. The results of these studies have convincingly
proved the existence of the critical ground-zero distance at which the cumulative blast effect reaches a
maximum. It is concluded that this critical distance should be used as the design distance, particularly
for tall structures. It is also advisable to use a realistic type of shock front and shock reflection coefficient,
consistent with the height of Mach stem, incidence angle and pressure magnitude.

INTRODUCTION For residential structures, a distance of 40 m is

recommended. The implicit assumption involved in
The need for designing certain important structures these recommendations is the notion that, the nearer
to resist air-blast loads is increasingly felt in the recent the bomb, the more will be the blast pressure, and
past, due to the enhanced use of explosives for hence, the degree of conservatism in the structural
security as well as terrorist operations. An important design.
task in blast-resistant design is to make a realistic This paper presents some results of analytical
prediction of the blast pressures. The distance of studies to show that such a notion is likely to be
explosion from the structure is significant, governing erroneous, particularly, for tall and slender struc-
the magnitude and duration of the blast loads. It is, tures. The elements of the blast phenomenon are
therefore, essential to understand the influence of this reviewed, before going into the formulations leading
distance on the blast effect, before choosing some to the ‘critical blast distance’ at which the transient
arbitrary distance for design purposes. dynamic response rises to a maximum.
If the location of the ground-zero (the point on the
ground vertically below the explosion) and the size of
the bomb are known, then the corresponding blast ELEMENTS OF BLAST PHENOMENON
loading on a structure may be estimated. But, unfor-
tunately, it will never be possible to specify the An explosion in air generates a pressure bulb,
expected ground-zero and the bomb size. Yet the which grows in size at supersonic velocity. The result-
designer needs this information for the blast-resistant ing blast wave releases energy over a small duration
design of a structure. Most of the literature on this and in a small volume, thus generating a pressure
topic does not provide sufficient guidelines to choose wave of finite amplitude, travelling radially in all
these basic blast parameters. The Indian code, directions. A blast wave can, broadly, be categorized
IS:4991 [I], however, recommends, for general guid- as air blast and underground blast, depending on the
ance, a charge of 100 kg TNT (tri-nitro-toluene), and point of blast being above or below the ground level.
three different distances according to the importance Air blast can further be divided as air burst and
of the structure. For essential service buildings, such surface burst, according to the height of burst. A
as hospitals, it recommends a ground-zero distance of typical pressure wave from an explosion has an over
20 m. The distance recommended for buildings of pressure phase, called positive phase, and an under
public gatherings, such as community halls, is 30 m. pressure phase, namely, the negative phase (Fig. 1).

587
588 M. V. Dharaneepathy et al.

POSITNE PHASE

-a (t - l,)/ld
P(t)=P,, (1 - (t - t,Vtd) e

NEGATIVE PHASE

TIME -> t
Fig. 1. Features of an ideal blast wave.

The peak side-on overpressure, P,, , usually decays in
an exponential form, given by the expression
p (2 ) = PS,[f - (t - L)lLJ
x exp[-cc(t - to)/td] for t 2 t,.
The positive phase duration t, and the wave form
parameter c( dictate the manner of decay and the
maximum magnitude of the negative phase pressure.
There are two other features of a blast wave: the wave
velocity U, influencing the arrival time t, of the wave,
and the peak dynamic pressure, q,,, relevant for
drag-dominated structures.
The basic difference between blast loads and other
dynamic loads is that the blast loads are moving pulse
loads, loading different parts of the structure at
different times, with varying magnitudes and dur-
ations, depending on the distance and angle of inci-
dence. The shock front is, basically, spherical, with its
parameters such as side-on overpressure (I’,,), posi-
tive phase duration (cd), arrival time (t,), wave decay
parameter (LX),etc., being functions of the stand-off
distance (radial distance) of the target. This feature is
identified with a typical ‘air burst’, as there is no
interaction with the ground. Once the pressure sphere
expands and strikes the relatively unyielding ground
surface, it is reflected back. The reflected shock
reinforces the incident shock and travels parallel to
the earth’s surface at enhanced pressure, duration
(1) and velocity. This shock front, known as ‘Mach
front’ or ‘Mach stem’ (Fig. 2), is formed by the
interaction of the incident wave with the reflected
wave. The point of intersection of the incident,
reflected and Mach waves is known as triple point,
and its height above the earth’s surface is called the
height of Mach stem (H,).
The variation of pressure over the height of the
Mach front is negligible. The region below the Mach
stem height is called ‘Mach reflection’ region, and
that above it is known as ‘regular reflection’ region.
In the Mach reflection region, the wave direction is
horizontal and the shock front is cylindrical, with the
axis of the cylinder being normal to the ground and
passing through the point of burst.
Mach stem begins to form when the angle (/?)
between the vertical line through the point of burst
and the slant line joining the burst point with the
point of incidence of spherical shock on ground
(Fig. 2), is between 40” and 50”. The actual value
of this angle varies marginally with the intensity of

INCIDENT WAVE _.+

\ :

REFLECTED WAVE -+ ., 1

H
b

GROUND:-ZERG
MACH STEM
Hm= 0.07 H & ( d/do) - 1 I2

Fig. 2. Surface-burst environment.

 Critical distance for blast-resistant design 589

Lcw HEIGHT OF BURST = 1.17m (Dharoneepothy 1993)

- do - (Ayvazyan et c 1396)
HEIGYT OFdyR_ST = 1 95m (D?aranrepathy -393)
\Ayv,ozyon et i 1986) n
~BBBE~ HElGhT OF BIJRST = 2 7313 (Drwoneepath~ 393) ,
- do - (Ayvozyon e’ c 1986:
.’
Dharaneepothy 1993) = TheoretIcal
Ayvazyon et aI 1986) = Expenmentnl
P

i:~~~~_

3.00 3.50 4.60 4.50 5 00 5.5n 600 6.50 7 00 7 50

SCALED GPOUND-ZERO ihSiL\i?“E (n-,/lee ‘$

Fig. 3. Correlation of theoretical and experimental Mach stem heights.

explosion. Thus, there is a limiting horizontal dis- of H, for Hb and d greater than about a metre. It is
tance, d,, from ground-zero, for the Mach stem to very useful in finite element analysis to decide
develop. In other words, Mach stem cannot form in whether to apply air burst (regular reflection) or
the region closer than d,. An explicit expression for surface burst (Mach reflection) conditions in calculat-
the height of Mach stem, as a function of the ground- ing the blast parameters differently for different el-
zero distance d, is not feasible owing to the uncertain- ements according to their spatial disposition.
ties regarding the intensity and orientation of the
shock. Curves relating the height of Mach stem with COMPUTATION OF BLAST LOADS ON A FINITE ELEMENT
the ground-zero distance have been obtained from
experiments [2,3]. Using these curves, an algebraic In most of the published literature on blast loads
expression for the height of Mach stem (H,,,) in terms the procedures suggested for estimation of blast
of the height of burst (Hb), limiting distance (do) and pressures and durations are different for different
the ground-zero distance (d) has been developed as geometries of structures. In other words, a general-
ized approach for calculating the blast loads on a
H, = O.O7H,[(d/d,) - 112. (2) surface, oriented arbitrarily in space, is presently not
available. Further, the existing practice is to assume
This expression has been tested for its reliability by a cylindrical or even a plane shock front, rather than
correlating its results with the published experimental a spherical or a combined spherical<ylindrical shock
values [2] in Fig. 3. It gives sufficiently good estimate front. This means an implicit assumption that the

* STRUCTURE WITH
INCIDENT WAVE
AN INCLINED FACE

REFLECTED WAVE

MACH REFLECTION

REGION

- INCIDENT WAVE
/
REGULAR (OELIPUE)

REFLECTION REGION
MACH REFLECTION REGION

Fig. 4. Reflected pressures on structures

590 M. V. Dharaneepathy et al.

height of Mach stem is more than the height of the pressure, Pro, must be estimated through interp-
structure. Hence, the old methods are not applicable olation of the experimental values (Fig. S), published
to tall structures and nearby explosions. by Ayvazyan et al. [2]
In finite element analysis, it becomes necessary to
adopt more general and realistic approaches, so that pro= c,p,, (7)
the prediction of response is reasonably reliable. At
first, the angle of incidence, Q (Fig. 4) between the
If 0 exceeds 90’, the reflection coefficient is deter-
line of wave propagation and the outer normal to the
mined as [5]
element must be determined, using the standard
procedures. The incident pressure and duration at the C, = 1.5 - O/180. (8)
centre of the element must, then, be computed using
the algebraic expressions given below [4] Then, the peak load on the element is

p,, I pa=
808[ 1 + (Z/4.5)‘]C Po= ProA, (9)
{[I + (Z/O.O48)*][1 + (Z/0.32)2][1 + (Z/1.35)*])“*’
(3) where A is the area of the element.
The elemental load may be distributed to its nodes
where P,, is the side-on overpressure, P, is the either equally, or inversely proportional to the dis-
atmospheric pressure, C = 0.986 for air-burst (regu- tance of the node from its centre, the difference being
lar region) and C = 1.883 for surface-burst (Mach relevant only for triangular or trapezoidal elements.
region), Z is the scaled distance in m/kgi’3 which For isoparametric elements, however, the shape func-
equals d/W ‘,‘3,d is the actual distance (m), and W is tions come in handy to arrive at a consistent load
charge weight (kg). vector. The time of arrival (t,) of the load on the
For a regular region element can be computed as the product of the wave
velocity and distance. The wave velocity is the
980[ 1 + (Z/0.54)‘“] W “I
t, = product of the Mach number and the velocity of
[1 + (Z/0.02)3][l + (Z/0.74)6][1 + (Z/6.9)2]‘12’ sound in air. The Mach number is expressed as
(4)

For a Mach region M = { 1 + [(6P,,)/(7P,)]j”’ (10)

t,=[l.931n(Z)+0.17]W’3. (5) and the wave velocity is

The wave decay parameter for both these regions can

be taken as [4]
u = MU\,

z = 3.182 -05*. (6) where US is the ambient speed of sound in undis-

turbed air = 331.5 + 0.607T m/set, T is the ambient
The reflection coefficient, C,, required to multiply the temperature (“C), and P, ambient atmospheric press-
incident pressure so as to arrive at the reflected ure.

Fig. 5. Variation of reflection coefficient with incident angle and pressure.

 Critical distance for blast-resistant design 591

The resulting load-time function is Recognizing the fact that Pr,tvis nearly twice P,,,, the
total blast load on the structure becomes
P(r 1 = pO[l -(t - ~,,)/Ow-~ (I - ~,)/4,
F=(P,,H,B)+(P,,H,,,B). (15)
for t 2 f,, = 0, otherwise. (I I)
For a given structure, the variables in eqn (I 5) are Pr,,
CRITICAL GROUND-ZERO DISTANCE and H,,. With distance, Pro decreases and H,,, in-
creases. Consequently, the first term on the right-
In the initial stages of this research work, certain hand side of eqn (I 5) steadily decreases, whereas the
studies on tall shells of different heights have been second term grows with distance. The growth of the
carried out with a view to study the effect of distance second term, resulting from the Mach stem growth,
of charge (ground-zero distance) on the blast re- persists only until H,, equals H,. Any further growth
sponse. The charge is assumed to be placed at of H,, cannot augment the force, since the pressure is
different distances from the structure and the struc- only on the projected area of the structure. It is,
tural response is analysed. The interest is to study the therefore, obvious that the blast load can reach a
influence of growth of Mach reflection region on the maximum only when the Mach stem height equals the
response of the structure. It may be recalled that height of the structure, and thereafter, it has to
the height of Mach region (Mach stem) grows almost reduce. In other words, H,, , in eqn (I 5), is limited to
quadratically with the ground-zero distance. As a maximum of H,.
already stated, a tall structure may experience cylin- This important point has not been mentioned in
drical shock front (Mach region) up to some height any of the literature. It is probably because the
from ground, and spherical shock front (regular concern for blast loads thus far has been only for
region) for the rest of its height. shallow structures. In the modern practice of erecting
Let H,, be the height of Mach region on a structure, tall structures for almost all applications, it is essen-
with a projected width B and total height H,$. The tial to choose the correct design distance of charge.
total blast force (F) on the structure will be a sum of An expression for the distance at which the structure
the force in the Mach region (F,) and that in the is fully engulfed by the Mach region can be derived
regular region (F,) by recasting eqn (2). As already stated, this is the
distance at which the cumulative blast effect reaches
F = F,, + F,. (12) a maximum, and hence, can be identified as critical
distance. Thus, the expression for the critical dis-
If P, is the pressure in the regular region, and Pr,n tance, d,, can be expressed as
that in the Mach region, then
d, = d,,{ I + [H,/(O.O7H,)]“‘}, (16)
6, = P,,n H,, B (13)
where d,, H,! and H,, are, respectively, the minimum
6 = J’,,(H> - H,,,)B. (14) distance for Mach stem formation, height of structure

Table I. Summarv of results of distance-effect studies on cvlindrical towers

Results
Displacements (SD) at Meridional stresses (SD) at
Diameter Distance TOP Bottom Mid-height
(m) (m) (mm) (t/m’) (t/m’)
30.0 35 373 481
5 40.0 I16 1282 I230
5 55.5 98 1754 1252
5 70.0 85 I507 1012

50.0 29 202 257

5 60.0 92 319 360
77.6 146 508 492
5 90.0 II3 459 287

300 70.0 32 I31 167

300 5 80.0 52 205 256
300 94.6 157 303 194
300 5 I 10.0 155 296 179

100 50 30.0 143 1283 879

100 50 40.0 93 1221 950
100 50 55.5 43 1571 914
100 50 70.0 42 1333 782
592 M. V. Dharaneepathy et al.

CHrcL HEIGHT=i?O M DIAMETER= 5 M

__: -de- =200 M - 30 - = 5 M
mk -do- =300 M : - co - = 5 M
W4W -do- =lOO M : - do - ~50 ht

CYLINDRICAL TOWERS

Fig. 6. Influence of distance on blast response of cylindrical towers.

and height of burst. Usually, d, can be assumed to be finite element code OSTA [6] to facilitate this analy-
equal to H,, since Mach stem develops for an incident sis. The results are presented in Table 1 and Figs 6
angle between 45” and 50”. Equation (16) is expected and I.
to facilitate approximate estimation of critical dis- The studies on the influence of ground-zero dis-
tance, since eqn (2) itself is approximate. In case the tance are then extended to a 200 m tall chimney and
explosion takes place at the ground level (Hb = 0), the a 120 m tall hyperboloidal cooling tower. A charge of
Mach stem height rises to infinity almost at the point 125 kg TNT is assumed to explode at different dis-
of burst, and the critical distance becomes negligible. tances from the base, one at a time. The critical
In such eventualities, it is reasonable to assume a distance for the chimney is estimated from eqn (16)
design distance of about 30 m, which is, incidentally, as 85 m. The distances considered for the chimney are
the current practice. 30, 50, 70, 85, 100 and 150 m. Each of the six analyses
was carried out by the Newmark’s constant accelera-
NUMERICAL EXPERIMENTS tion method of direct integration for 2050 steps of
1 msec duration. These analyses are repeated as per
To verify this theory, certain numerical exper- IS coda1 provisions [I] and ASCE recommen-
iments are conducted on structures of different dations [7]. The results of top displacements (stan-
heights and diameters. Cylinders of 100, 200 and dard deviations) by the three approaches are, then,
300 m height are analysed. The diameter is 5 m in all compared in Fig. 8, where the scaled distance
the three cases and constant over the height. A large (= actual distance/charge”‘) is used for the x-axis. It
shell of 50 m diameter and 100 m height is also may be noted that the IS code assumes a Mach
analysed. Linear analyses are carried out for a charge reflected shock for the entire height of the structure
of 125 kg TNT, placed at different distances (Table for all ground-zero distance. It also assumes that the
I), with the height of burst remaining constant at 2 m. reflection coefficient is a cosine function of the inci-
Newmark’s constant acceleration method of direct dent angle up to k 90’, and negligible for the leeward
integration is used for 1025 steps of 1 msec duration. face. ASCE [7] differs from IS:4991 [I], only with
A software module, called BLAST, is added to the regard to the retlection coefficients, which are to be

Fig. 7. Influence of distance on top displacement of cylindrical towers.

 Critical distance for blast-resistant design 593

5.7m
cf

T1
40

30
TOP 1
GlSPL jmm) j
,

!/ 3
SCALED DISTANCE [m/Kg j -----Y
13.67m
Fig. 8. Influence of distance on blast response of chimney.

taken from experimental plots (Fig. 5) or from eqn
(8).
A cooling tower, 120 m tall and 96 m base diameter
is also analysed as per recommendations in IS:4991 as
well as by the procedure described here. The critical
distance for this structure is 30 m. The charge is
125 kg TNT exploding at distances of 10, 20, 30, 50,
70, and 100 m from the base. The step-by-step direct
integration method of Newmark’s constant accelera-
tion scheme was used for 2050 steps of 1 msec
duration. The top displacements by the two methods
for different distances are compared in Fig. 9. The
manner in which the Mach reflection region grows
with distance of charge on a structure, is illustrated
in Fig. 10, where the regions of the cooling tower,
covered by Mach reflection for different ground-zero
distances, are shown shaded. The different types of
modes of the cooling tower excited when analysed by
the coda1 approach and the procedures developed
here are shown in Fig. 11.
DISCUSSIONS
Until now, the concern for blast-resistant design
has been confined to shallow structures. For tall
structures, the type of shock front seems to be having
a pronounced effect. The studies on shells of different
heights and geometries, with a view to understand the
influence of distance of charge on the blast response,
have facilitated the detection of a critical distance at

----c- I.S.CODE - -r--PROPOSEI

Y
~_ ‘7(5,Cl?
-ii ‘i-i B
-

SCALED DISTANCE (m/KS”? ---i

Fig. 9. Influence of distance on blast response of cooling tower: charge = 125 kg.
594 M. V. Dharaneepathy et al.

‘7’
5 STAN i-E = 13in -3:I;T,‘.r:t:r = -r,rr. ---i
- ---4,;
.._.
E = 1 -j:,,

Fig. 10. Growth of Mach reflection region with distance for cooling tower: char&c = 125 kg

which the cumulative blast effect is maximum. The
growth of Mach stem, as can be noticed from eqn
(2) is, approximately, a quadratic function of the
ground-zero distance. It is, therefore, logical to ob-
serve that, for certain distance, the height of Mach
stem could be less than that of the structure, particu-
larly for tall structures.
It is of interest to note the influence of growth of
Mach reflection region (Fig. 10) on the response of
the structure. The pressure in the Mach reflection
region is nearly twice that of the pressure in the
regular reflection region. Consequently, the larger
the Mach reflection region engulfing a structure,
the larger is the pressure acting on it. The Mach
reflection region increases with the ground-zero dis-
tance as per eqn (2). At a particular ground-zero
distance the structure is completely engulfed by the
Mach reflection region and the integrated area of the
structure exposed to Mach pressure reaches a maxi-
mum. Any further increase in distance does not alter
the type of region engulfing the structure, and, there-
fore, results in reduction in pressure magnitude. For
distances less than the critical distance, the structure
is covered, partly by the regular reflection region and
partly by the Mach region, resulting in reduced blast
pressure. Obviously, the response should reach a
maximum when the ground-zero distance is approxi-
mately equal to the critical distance.
From the results of cylindrical towers (Table I.
Figs 6 and 7) it can be observed that the response for
critical distance, highlighted by boldface type in
Table 1, is seen to be the maximum in most of the
cases. In Fig. 6, the response is the meridional stress
at the bottom, expressed as a ratio of the stress for
critical distance. ln this figure, the stress ratio reaches
its maximum at the critical distance in all cases. In
Fig. 7, the normalized displacements at the top are
compared. These normalized graphs show that, for
all cases of tall and slender towers, the displacement
response too reaches a maximum when the distance
is equal to the critical distance. For large diameter
shell structures, the top displacement does not truly
represent the blast response.
In the case of chimney also (Fig. 8) the response
rises to a maximum for the critical distance of 85 m
(scaled distance of 17 m/kg’ ‘). For small ground-zero
distances, a small bottom portion of the chimney only
experiences the Mach reflected shock. The rest of the
chimney is in the regular reflection region, experienc-
ing the spherical shock front, with the wave travelling
radially. Consequently, the wave arrival times for
bottom and top nodes of the chimney are so different
that, by the time the wave reaches the top (the
weakest point in a cantilevered structure). the shock
front has cleared most parts of the structure. In other
words, at a given time, the integrated area of the

Fig. 1 I. Cooling tower results by the new and codal procedures (charge = 125 kg; distance = 30 m)
 Critical distance for blast-resistant design 595

Fig. 12. Cooling tower spectra by the new and coda1 procedures (charge = 125 kg; distance = 30 m)

blast-loaded portion of the chimney reduces to a The following conclusions may be drawn from
negligible extent as the ground-zero distance reduces. these studies.
This is the reason for the significantly low response
for very small distances in the proposed method Shock front idealization has a pronounced effect
(Fig. 8). on the response, particularly, of tall structures.
In the case of the cooling tower, it can be noticed There is a distance, known as ‘critical ground-
from Figs 9 and 10 that, as the critical distance of zero distance’, at which the blast response is a
about 30 m is approached, the entire structure is fully maximum. This critical distance should be used
covered by the Mach reflection region. Consequently, as design distance, instead of any other arbitrary
the response rises to its maximum at 30m distance distance.
(6 m/kg”’ scaled distance) and reduces thereafter. In Any arbitration in the reflection coefficients can
this case, the difference between the results by the new lead to a, needlessly, high conservatism in the
and the coda1 procedures is not significant, since there design.
is no cantilever action in the structure. From Fig. 12 REFERENCES
it may be observed that the coda1 approach excites I IS Code IS:4991L1968, Criteria for blast-resistant design
only a few low frequency modes. of structures for explosions above ground, Bureau of
Indian Standards, New Delhi (1969).
2. H. Ayvazyan, M. Dede, N. Dobbs, M. Whitney, P.
Bowles, W. Baker and J. P. Caltagirone, Structures to
resist the effects of accidental explosions, V. II, Blast,
Fragment and Shock Loads, Special publication No.
AD-Al76 673, U.S. Army Armament Research, Devel-
CONCLUSJONS
opment and Engineering Center, Dover, NJ (1986).
3 G. F. Kinney and K. J. Graham, Explosire Shocks in
This research has resulted in the detection of a
Air. Springer, New York (1985).
critical ground-zero distance at which the cumulative 4 M. V. Dharaneepathy, Air-blast effects on shell struc-
blast effect reaches a maximum. This feature of blast tures. Ph.D. thesis, Anna University, Madras (1993).
effect is due to the growth of Mach reflection region 5 C. H. Norris, R. J. Hansen, M. J. Holey, Jr, J. M. Biggs,
S. Namyet and J. K. Minami, Sfrurrural Des& for
engulfing a structure. For tall structures, it is essential
Dynamic Loads. McGraw-Hill, New York (1959).
to use this critical distance as the design distance. The 6. M. N. Keshava Rao. M. V. Dharaneeoathv. S. Go-
blast wave can have a spherical or cylindrical shock mathinayagam, K. Rama Raju and K. G: Sudesh,
front depending on the height of Mach stem at the OSTA software-offshore/onshore structural analysis
location of the structure. The nature of modes getting under UNIX system. Compur. Struct. 38, 1855201
(1991).
excited may vary with the shock front type. It is,
7. ASCE, Design of structures to resist nuclear weapon
therefore, advisable to use a realistic type of shock effects. Manual No. 42, American Society of Civil
front, based on the height of Mach stem. Engineers. New York (1985).