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ABSTRACT
1
Induced Draft Fan, Electrostatic Precipitator, Economizers, Steam/
Mud Drum, Furnace and Pumps to circulate water.
1. VERSAMAX
2. SIMATIC S7 etc.
2
The ladder logic that is to be designed has timers, counters,
comparators, controllers and converters, shift registers, various logics.
We make the appropriate use of the various components to provide a
smooth control action. For a PLC, normally the final control element
will be the control value. Here the solenoid value will be the final
control element. We can control as many as parameters in the process
plant using PLC.
INTRODUCTION
3
1. INTRODUCTION
Many roles for humans in industrial processes presently lie beyond the
scope of automation. Human-level pattern recognition, language
recognition, and language production ability are well beyond the capabilities
of modem mechanical and computer systems. Tasks requiring subjective
assessment or synthesis of complex sensory data, such as scents and sounds,
as well as high-level tasks such as strategic planning, currently require
human expertise. In many cases, the use of humans is more cost-effective
than mechanical approaches even where automation of industrial tasks is
possible.
4
Specialised hardened computers, referred to as programmable logic
controllers (PLCs), are frequently used to synchronize the flow of inputs
from (physical) sensors and events with the flow of outputs to actuators and
events. This leads to precisely controlled actions that permit a tight control
of almost any industrial process.
5
• Evolution of PLC
The PLC was first developed for General Motors Corporation in 1968 to
eliminate costly scrapping of assembly line relays during model
changeovers. By 1971, PLC was being used in applications outside
automobile industry.
6
2. Since each control action corresponds to switch gear, so for every
element control wiring has to be done. So there is extensive control
wiring attributing to complexity.
7
Programmable logic controllers:
The main difference from other computers is the special I/O arrangements.
This connects the PLC to sensors and actuators. The I/O arrangements may
be built into a simple PLC, or the PLC may have external I/O modules
attached to a proprietary computer network that plugs into the PLC.
The functionality of the PLC has evolved over the years to include typically
relay control, sophisticated motion controller, process control, distributed
control systems and complex networking.
However, it should be noted that PLCs have a high cost (often 100s of
dollars) typical of a "generic" solution. There are other ways for automating
machines, such as custom micro controller- based design, but there is
difference among both: PLCs while more expensive, contain every thing
needed to handle high power loads right out of the box
8
In addition, a micro controller- based would not have the flexibility of
infield programmability of a PLC. That is why PLCs are used in production
lines, for example. This typically are highly customized systems so the cost
of a PLC is low compared to the cost of contacting a designer for a specific,
one time only design. On the other hand, in the case mass produced goods,
customized control systems quickly pay for themselves due to the lower
cost of components. In high volumes, for example, a microcontroller with
5m relays and a power supply (for driving a dish washer for example) would
cost about 10 USD or less.
PLCs are used in many different industries and machines such as packaging
semiconductor machines. Well known PLC brands are Honeywell, Siemens,
Schneider electric, Omron, Rockwell (Allan Bradley), general electric,
Panasonic and Mitsubishi.
9
• WHY PLCs?
For the cost of relays and timers to alternate about three lines for conveying
product from finishing machine to packaging machine, it is better to pay A
PLC to do the same job. In general, a PLC system would make production
more flexible and responsive.
Reliability:
Speed:
The PLC can speed up operations of machines that cannot be obtained with
that old outdated relay logic. Control logic makes decisions more accurate
and faster than a human operator could hope to achieve. Timers can be set to
hundredths of a second to compensate for external variables, and enhance
safety.
Greater functionality:
PLCs have the ability to compare real-time values and make decisions based
on that comparison. They can do complex mathematical functions, and
adjust the machine accordingly. The greater functionality allows designing
10
logic that can automatically adjust for different machine products, there by
reducing downtime for setups and machine change over.
Little or no cost to modify or upgrade the system: If the basic PLC system is
used in a place, most cost of adding circuits and machine control is
minimum.
Safety:
In the past with relay control logic, safety circuit implementation was
weighed out on a cost versus likelihood method. In other words, the basic
emergency stop button, relying on operators to stop the machine before an
accident occurred. Usually due to distractions and slow reaction time of
humans, the buttons wasn't pressed until after the damage was done. PLCs
can cover 99% of all the possible safety risk, and the only cost is the tune it
takes to add a few rungs of logic to the program. Safety curtains are about
the most expensive item, but well under the cost an accident. Using the PLC
to monitor safety risks are equivalent to having a full time employee
watching, but with quicker reaction tune than any human. The PLC logic
should never be a substitute for hardwired safety circuits, just used as an
enhancement to machine safety. Safety curtains should be run in series with
hardwired emergency stops.
11
Scheduled downtime will be less it is for machine modifications, which
require less work with PLCs. Some of the preventive maintenance can be
automated through the PLC to even further reduce down tune.
The more complex our systems become, the more beneficial it is to write
logic that will not only isolate failures but also indicate potential failures
that may occur in the near future. This allows maintenance to change
unscheduled downtime into scheduled downtime. Scheduled downtime, hi
turn reduces the amount of time down and loss of production.
Repair is usually only a fraction of the time it takes to find the problem. It is
not uncommon to spend hours tracking down a limit switch that is bent, or a
dirty proximity sensor. The cost to find the problem is more expensive than
the cost to repair it. With PLC the cot to find the problem is greatly reduced.
12
• Architecture of PLC:
Programmable logic controllers (PLC) have been evolved out from Relay
logic circuits (RLC).
The relay logic circuits are hard wired. When the process became
complicated and [automation level increased so did the circuits. There
RLC's had many drawbacks. Viz.,
13
2. Troubleshooting was very difficult
3. Inflexible.
Advantages of a PLC:
• Economical
14
The PLC's is composed of electronic circuit with a microcomputer centered.
However, it can be equivalently regarded as an integrated body of ordinary
relay, timer, counter etc.
15
PLC used in BMS :
CNC & PTP applications are handled by the Honeywell 622 motion control
system which integrate seamlessly into the 620 rack to give up to 6 axis of
servo control.
The entire 620 range is programmed using the 623-60 loader suite which
has a comprehensive instruction set including full floating point maths and
user definable function blocks. Pre-tested function blocks are also available
to download. WinLoader, a windows based version of the programming
suite is now available for use with Windows XP.
16
• PLC used is TATA HONEYWELL.
• DC POWER SUPPLY
• FREQUENCY : 50 HZ.
• PLC SPECIFICATIONS :-
• Memory module
• Register module
• Processor module
• If Running mode won’t work then Standby mode is used by PLC for
functioning.
• Program
• Disable
• Run/Prog.
• Run.
18
• SIEMENS Automation
19
A typical RLC circuits is as shown in Figure.
Circuit Functioning :
When PB1 is pressed, R1 & R12 coils pickup. This makes R12 Normally
open (NO) Contact to close. Once R12 contact closes even if PB1 is
released, R12 will remain ON as there is a alternative path for the coil
(Termed as Latching). The only way to break the latch is to press PB2.
As seen the logic circuits are hard wired. When the process became
complicated and automation level increased so did the circuits. There RLC's
had many drawbacks. Viz.,
3. Inflexible.
20
LOGIC CONTROLLERS (PLC) emerged.
Power Supply:
21
the appropriate voltages required for internal functioning of the PLC
circuits.
AC: 110V,220V
Processor :
This is the heart of the PLC. It interfaces the input and out subsystems
through software written to it. The input and output subsystems are
explained in the preceding discussions.
INPUT SUBSYSTEMS
The sensing elements (input elements) are wired to the input section of the
PLC. These elements sense the dynamic status of the machine operation or
process. Inputs are classified into two :
1. Digital
2. Analog
1. Digital inputs :
These inputs have multiple states and rather continuously changing one and
are having a range of values. Electrically these are categorized into two:
1. 0 to 10 Vdc -unipolar
1. 0 to 20mA
2. 4 to 20 mA
The field parameters like pressure, flow, temperature etc. are converted to
electrical parameters through transducers and are converted further to the
above voltage / current signals through transmitters. The output of
transmitters is then connected to analog inputs of the PLC. The PLC in turn
converts these voltage / current signals to their equivalent digital values
through the analog to digital converters. Typical example is shown below:
23
The most commonly used range is 4-20mA, as it has no voltage drop for
longer distances and wire cut can be detected as the minimum signal voltage
is 4mA.
OUTPUT SUBSYSTEMS:
The actuating elements (output elements) are wired to the output section.
1. Digital
2. Analog
1. Digital Output:
These have only two states, viz., ON or OFF (digitally 1 or 0). There these
are also called as discrete outputs. These elements are mainly actuators like
contactors. Relays, solenoid coils, indicating lamps, annunciation lamps
etc., and are directly connected to outputs of the PLC.
2. Analog Output:
These output have multiple states and rather continuously changing one and
are having a range of values electrically these are categorized into two :
1. 0 to 10 V DC -unipolar
3. 0 to 5 VDC
24
1. 0 to 20mA DC
2. 0 to 20 mA DC
Consider the electrical network shown in Fig. If the same has to be replaced
by the PLC, then the pushbutton PBl, PB2 would be the inputs and relay
coil Rl as output.
The auxiliary contactor R12 can be omitted. Suppose PBl, PB2 are
connected to 1st and 2nd channel of the digital input card of the PLC and Rl
is connected to 1st channel of the digital output card of PLC then the PLC
program will be as shown in the above example.
25
The auxiliary relay is omitted and is replaced by a contact of output itself.
This is permitted in PLC. Outputs are memory addresses, which can be read
as well as written.
26
HOW DOES A PLC WORK ?
Most PLC system executes a scan sequence. Figure displays the various
blocks in this sequence.
Input scan consists of reading the current state for each input connected to
the PLC system and updating the input memory tables (buffer memory).
Logic scan consists of reading the use program that has been stored in the
PLC memory. These programs can be written in ladder logic, instruction
list, sequential Flow charts, function block, structure text, c code or state
logic depending upon their manufacturer of (he system. Some system
supports programming using combination of languages within the same
program-Output scan consists of adjusting the values of the outputs
27
connected to the system based upon the status of inputs and execution of the
logic.
1. Relay functions
3. Math functions
4. Relational functions
7. Table functions
8. Conversion functions
9. Control functions
1. RELAY FUNCTIONS:
28
Contacts:
Ladder logic permits only 9 contacts and a coil in series. If the number of
contact is more than 9 then, continuation contact "<+>—"
Coils:
------------- ( )
-----
Normal open coil
30
• USER PROGRAMMING FORMS
• Ladder Diagram(LAD)
• Structured Text(ST)
• TIMERS
1. Pulse Timer
3. ON Delay Timer
31
• Timer has Digital Inputs and Digital Outputs only. Timer occupies 2
Bytes of memory space.
ADDRESS CS
TV BI
I0.
1 R BCD
32
J
R a w m a te
M ix e d H a r
& B am b
33
34
BURNER MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
INTRODUCTION
Though predominantly the heat for the process is obtained from the
burning of the black liquor, supplementary heat from oil fired auxiliary fuel
burners is required to start up the unit, regulate the charbed , avoid blackouts
and to augment additional steam.
35
FEATURES
The BMS provides for the proper sequencing of equipment during the
T and shut down procedures and provides for an
normal startup operating
auxiliary fuel trip and/or an alarm during an adverse burner or unit operating
various Interlocks.
E
condition. This is accomplished through the use of pre-wired logic and
A
M
36
BURNER
1
37
FUNCTION
1. Boiler purge.
The BMS is a local-manual relay system. Starting burners are started and
stopped locally from their associated local switch boxes while the
various header trip valves are opened and closed remotely from
associated Push Buttons on BOILER CONTROL DESK(BCD).All the
commands of BMS are given from BCD and all the feed-back from BMS
are indicated in BCD.
FURNACE PURGE
*1B. Main oil header trip valve and ignitor trip valve closed.
38
*1C. Feed Water shut off valve is open.
(*) Conditions preceded by an asterish are not required once the ID fan is
running.
5. See that all of the starting and all of the load carrying burner valves
are fully closed.
6. Reset the boiler trip by depressing the BOILER TRIP RESET Push
Button.
7. When the purge ready light comes on indicating that all of the purge
requirements have been completed depress the PURGE START PUSH
BUTTON.
Depressing the main oil header trip valve open push button once the
furnace purge is completed, will open the main oil header trip valve.
Depressing the main oil header trip valve close push button will close the
main oil header trip valve.
39
IGNITOR OIL HEADER TRIP VALVE
Depressing the Ignitor Oil Header trip valve open push button once the
purge cycle has been completed and the main oil header trip valve is fully
opened, opens the ignitor oil header trip valve.
40
OPERATION (SHUT DOWN)
1. Open the associated steam scavenge valve and scavenge the gun.
5. Retract the oil gun from the firing position. However, it must be noted
that following a fuel trip the guns shall not be scavenged.
(*) Any of the conditions preceded by an asterisk will also trip the
associated ignitor.
41
AUXILIARY FUEL TRIP
Any one of the conditions below will cause an auxiliary fuel trip to
occur,and results in the immediate shutdown of all of the auxiliary fuel
in service and necessitates completion of another furnace purge cycle
before any auxiliary fuel firing may be reinstated.
10.Starting burner oil header pressure above 125% of full load pressure.
11.Load carrying burner oil pressure above 125% of full load pressure.
15.Both of the auxiliary fuel trip push buttons on the BCD depressed.
42
ESP
CBL
43
EMERGENCY DRAIN AND TRIP
BOILER TRIP
The emergency drain valves should not open until the feed-water valve is
closed (This is an externally interlocked circuit).
The emergency drain condition will remain, “Scaled in ” until the circuit is
reset by means of a reset push button on the BCD panel. This action is to be
taken by responsible personnel after assessing the particular situation which
warranted the emergency drain trip initially.
44
Alarms
7. Boiler trip.
45
ECONOMIZER
Economizers are so named because they can make use of the enthalpy
in fluid streams that are hot, but not hot enough to be used in a boiler,
thereby recovering more useful enthalpy and improving the boiler's
efficiency. They are a device fitted to a boiler which saves energy by
using the exhaust gases from the boiler to preheat the cold water used
to fill it (the feed water).
DIGITAL I/P’s
2. HOBV CLOSED
3. SCNR FLM
4. IGNITOR
5. FURNACE PRESSURE
6. HO PRESSURE
8. HO TEMPERATURE
9. HORV OPEN
10.HORV CLOSE
11.HOTV OPEN
12.HOTV CLOSE
14.AIR FLOW
15.DRUM LEVEL
46
16.SA/TA FAN RUNNING
21.EMERGENCY TRIP
24.PURGE START
DIGITAL O/P’s
2. HOBV OPENED
3. SCAVENGE V/V
4. HEA IGNITOR
47
13.PA FAN START PMT
15.BL PMP
17.AFT
22.TRIP PA FAN
23.STM-BL V/V
24.STARTUP V/V
48
LADDER LOGICS
49
INDUSTRIAL SPECIFICATIONS
• ECONOMISER TEMP. :
380deg.C(inlet) , 160deg.C(outlet)
50
METHODOLOGY
51
IMPLEMENTATION
• MODEL : S7 300
• 16 DIGITAL INPUTS
• 4 ANALOG INPUTS
• 16 DIGITAL OUTPUTS
• 9 RELAY OUTPUTS
• 2 ANALOG OUTPUTS
• Q1 : 24 V DC 0.5A MAX
• The Inputs and Outputs used in this project are Digital I/O ‘sonly.
52
1. START/STOP Push Button Switch
2. LOW
3. MEDIUM
4. HIGH.
1. INLET-1
2. INLET-2
3. AGITATOR / MOTOR
4. OUTLET
5. PUMP-1
6. PUMP-2
53
54
Terminal no Terminal name
1 24v
2 I-1
3 I-2
4 Motor
5 Outlet
6 Pump-1
7 Pump-2
8 Common line
9 START
10 STOP
11 MIN
12 MID
13 MAX
14
15
16 0V
• HARDWARE USED
1. PLC
2. Solenoid value -3
55
Pressure:0~0.8Mpa
Power:4.8W
Voltage: dc 24v
3. Pumps -2
Voltage: 220-240v ac
Frequency: 50 hz
Power : 8.5w
4. Motor -1
Voltage : 12v DC
Speed : 100rpm
5. Wanes -3
6. Tank -1
8. Voltage regulator -1
7812
Voltage :12v DC
9. PCB Board(4*4)-1
10.pipe -1 5Mts
11.Push buttons -2
56
NO -1
NC -1
11.PCB connector -1
PBT
13. Table -1
• WORKING
2. When the Start Push Button is pressed the Pump-1 and Inlet v/v-
1will be ON i.e., liquid-1 shall flow from Pump-1 to Tank.
4. As the Mid Level is reached liquid-1 stops flowing from Pump-1 and
liquid-2 is supplied by Pump-2 via Inlet v/v-2.
6. Then Motor shall be ON for specified time for mixing of both the
liquids with Agitator that is connected to Motor.
7. When Motor Stops the Outlet v/v will drain the liquid Outside.
57
• LIST OF I/O ‘s in LADDER DIAGRAM
58
I0. I0. I0. I0. Q0.1 Q0.2 M3.0 M3.1 Q0.0
0 1 2 3
Q0.
0
Q0.4
M3.5 M3.5
S
I0. I0. I0. I0.
Q0.0 Q0.2 M3.0 M3.1 Q0.1
0 1 2 3
Q0.5
M3.
I0. Q0.1 Q0.3 I0. 5
Q0.0 R
3 0
M0.1
M0.
1
M3.0
S
I0.
M0.1 M0.5 M3.1 Q0.2
0
T1
S_OD
M0.1 M0.5
T
S Q
10s TV
M3.
1 M3.0
R
Q0.3 M3.0 M3.1
S
I0. I0.
M3.1
0 1
R
59
60
• APPLICATIONS
61
RESULTS AND
CONCLUSION
62
4. Results and Conclusion
• The main theme of this project is Purging the Furnace at initial stage
and activating the Emergency Trip and Drain valves during abnormal
conditions while continuous running of process.
• This project can be used for better functioning of Boiler plant without
any malfunctions by continuously monitoring the Industrial
parameters and protecting the Boiler from destruction.
• So, the BMS system and Level Control in a Reaction Vessel are being
controlled using a PLC.
63
5. FUTURE SCOPE
64
6. REFERENCES
4. Instrumentation Manuals.
65
7. APPENDIX
LIST OF EQUIPMENTS :-
ON/OFF Valve:-
Limit Switch:-
Purpose:
Control valve:-
66
Valve pressure(kg/cm2) current(ma)
0% 4 0.2
25% 8 0.4
50% 12 0.6
75% 16 0.8
100% 20 1.0
Motor:-
3) TRIP: motor takes high current then it will stop, red blinking is seen
in dcs monitor
Pressure transmitter:-
67
Level transmitter:-
• If the level is less, than dcs gives signal to input and valve is opened
to attain certain level and then level transmitter indicates it in dcs.
Flow transmitter:-
• Orifice plate are used for creating differential pressure in water and
steam lines
• Magnetic flow meters are used for flow measurement of pulp and
liquor.
Temperature transmitter:-
AI-1 unit:0c
68
Level switch:-
DI-1 unit:on/off
Flow switch:-
DI-1 unit:-on/off
• In Dcs screen
Pressure switch:-
69
0.2 kg/cm2 – low pressure
Speed switch:-
DI-1 unit:-on/off
Green: normal.
Oxygen Analyser:-
Ph Analyser:-
• Ph is potential of hydrogen.
70
• Measure of acidity or alkalinity of a solution numerically equal to 7
or neutral solution.
Ph < 7(acidic)
Ph > 7(alkaline)
Ph = 7(neutral)
Alkali Analyser:-
Consistency Transmitter:-
71
• Measuring principle is force measurement, time measurement by
reciprocating sensing element.
• The consistency depends on pulp type i.e 0.5% min. and 5% max.
Conductivity Transmitter:-
Weightometer:-
• Chips from live bottom silo falls on conveyor belt and they are sent to
digester section where the chips fall on screw.
Load indicator:-
72
• Level indicator displays level on a scale as red colour mounted inside
a meter.
Load cell:-
Indicator:-
Unit:% Range:0-100
• Generally the transmitter output ranges from 4-20 ma. The indicator
range may be 0-500, 0-1000, etc..
73
Proximity switch:-
1) capacitive
2) inductive
a) cylinder.
b) rectangular.
• Proximity switch senses the metallic particles and gives output signal
in pulse.
Controller:-
Unit:% Range:0-100
1) Process variable.
2) Set point
3) Output.
74
• It is fed to controller as 4-20 ma signal.
ClO2 Analyser:-
Cl2 Detector:-
• ClO2 + Cl2 gas mixture is passed and the cell in detector detects
chlorine in that gas.
75
Switches, process actuated:-
• If the coolant flow stops, the flow switch will go to its "normal" (un
actuated) status of closed.
76
Switch types :-
Though it may seem strange to cover this elementary electrical topic at such
a late stage in this book series, I do so because the chapters that follow
explore an older realm of digital technology based on mechanical switch
contacts rather than solid-state gate circuits, and a thorough understanding
of switch types is necessary for the undertaking. Learning the function of
switch-based circuits at the same time that you learn about solid-state logic
gates makes both topics easier to grasp, and sets the stage for an enhanced
learning experience in Boolean algebra, the mathematics behind digital
logic circuits.
The simplest type of switch is one where two electrical conductors are
brought in contact with each other by the motion of an actuating
mechanism. Other switches are more complex, containing electronic circuits
able to turn on or off depending on some physical stimulus (such as light or
magnetic field) sensed. In any case, the final output of any switch will be (at
least) a pair of wire-connection terminals that will either be connected
together by the switch's internal contact mechanism ("closed"), or not
connected together ("open").
77
Pushbutton switches are two-position devices actuated with a button that is
pressed and released. Most pushbutton switches have an internal spring
mechanism returning the button to its "out," or "unpressed," position, for
momentary operation. Some pushbutton switches will latch alternately on or
off with every push of the button. Other pushbutton switches will stay in
their "in," or "pressed," position until the button is pulled back out. This last
type of pushbutton switches usually have a mushroom-shaped button for
easy push-pull action.
Selector switches are actuated with a rotary knob or lever of some sort to
select one of two or more positions. Like the toggle switch, selector
switches can either rest in any of their positions or contain spring-return
mechanisms for momentary operation.
A joystick switch is actuated by a lever free to move in more than one axis
of motion. One or more of several switch contact mechanisms are actuated
depending on which way the lever is pushed, and sometimes by how far it is
pushed. The circle-and-dot notation on the switch symbol represents the
direction of joystick lever motion required to actuate the contact. Joystick
hand switches are commonly used for crane and robot control.
78
These limit switches closely resemble rugged toggle or selector hand
switches fitted with a lever pushed by the machine part. Often, the levers are
tipped with a small roller bearing, preventing the lever from being worn off
by repeated contact with the machine part.
79
These switches sense the rotary speed of a shaft either by a centrifugal
weight mechanism mounted on the shaft, or by some kind of non-contact
detection of shaft motion such as optical or magnetic.
80
A floating object can be used to actuate a switch mechanism when the liquid
level in an tank rises past a certain point. If the liquid is electrically
conductive, the liquid itself can be used as a conductor to bridge between
two metal probes inserted into the tank at the required depth. The
conductivity technique is usually implemented with a special design of relay
triggered by a small amount of current through the conductive liquid. In
most cases it is impractical and dangerous to switch the full load current of
the circuit through a liquid.
Level switches can also be designed to detect the level of solid materials
such as wood chips, grain, coal, or animal feed in a storage silo, bin, or
hopper. A common design for this application is a small paddle wheel,
inserted into the bin at the desired height, which is slowly turned by a small
electric motor. When the solid material fills the bin to that height, the
material prevents the paddle wheel from turning. The torque response of the
small motor than trips the switch mechanism. Another design uses a "tuning
fork" shaped metal prong, inserted into the bin from the outside at the
desired height. The fork is vibrated at its resonant frequency by an
electronic circuit and magnet/electromagnet coil assembly. When the bin
fills to that height, the solid material dampens the vibration of the fork, the
change in vibration amplitude and/or frequency detected by the electronic
circuit.
Inserted into a pipe, a flow switch will detect any gas or liquid flow rate in
excess of a certain threshold, usually with a small paddle or vane which is
pushed by the flow. Other flow switches are constructed as differential
pressure switches, measuring the pressure drop across a restriction built into
the pipe.
Another type of level switch, suitable for liquid or solid material detection,
is the nuclear switch. Composed of a radioactive source material and a
radiation detector, the two are mounted across the diameter of a storage
vessel for either solid or liquid material. Any height of material beyond the
level of the source/detector arrangement will attenuate the strength of
radiation reaching the detector. This decrease in radiation at the detector can
81
be used to trigger a relay mechanism to provide a switch contact for
measurement, alarm point, or even control of the vessel level.
RS-232 :
[edit]
Voltage levels:
The RS-232 standard defines the voltage levels that correspond to logical
one and logical zero levels for the data transmission and the control signal
lines. Valid signals are plus or minus 3 to 15 volts - the range near zero
volts is not a valid RS-232 level. The standard specifies a maximum open-
circuit voltage of 25 volts: signal levels of ±5 V, ±10 V, ±12 V, and ±15 V
are all commonly seen depending on the power supplies available within a
device. RS-232 drivers and receivers must be able to withstand indefinite
short circuit to ground or to any voltage level up to ±25 volts. The slew rate,
or how fast the signal changes between levels, is also controlled.
For data transmission lines (TxD, RxD and their secondary channel
equivalents) logic one is defined as a negative voltage, the signal condition
is called marking, and has the functional significance. Logic zero is positive
and the signal condition is termed spacing. Control signals are logically
inverted with respect to what one would see on the data transmission lines.
When one of these signals is active, the voltage on the line will be between
82
+3 to +15 volts. The inactive state for these signals would be the opposite
voltage condition, between -3 and -15 volts. Examples of control lines
would include request to send (RTS), clear to send (CTS), data terminal
ready (DTR), and data set ready (DSR).
Connectors:
83
The LM78XX series of three terminal regulators is available with several fixed
output voltages making them useful in a wide range of applications. One of these is local
on card regulation, eliminating the distribution problems associated with single point
regulation. The voltages available allow these regulators to be used in logic systems,
instrumentation, HiFi, and other solid state electronic equipment. Al-though designed
primarily as fixed voltage regulators these devices can be used with external components
to obtain adjustable voltages and currents. The LM78XX series is available in an
aluminum TO-3 package which will allow over 1.0A load current if adequate heat
sinking is provided. Current limiting is included to limit the peak output current to a safe
value. Safe area protection for the output transistor is provided to limit internal power
dissipation. If internal power dissipation becomes too high for the Heat sinking provided,
the thermal shutdown circuit takes over preventing the IC from overheating.
Considerable effort was expanded to make the LM78XX series of regulators easy
to use and minimize the number of external components. It is not necessary to bypass the
output, although this does improve transient response. Input bypassing is needed only
if the regulator is located far from the filter capacitor of the power supply.
For output voltage other than 5v,12v and 15v the LM117 series provides an
output voltage range from 1.2v to 57v.
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Features:
n Output current in excess of 1A
LM7815C 15V
Authorised By
SANTOSH BHARADWAJ REDDY
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