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exam. Knowing your cyclical changes, what is normal for you, and what regular monthly changes in the breast
feel like is the best way to keep an eye on your breast health. Breast tissue extends from under your nipple and
areola up toward your armpit.
Difficulty: Easy
If you are already menopausal (have not had a period for a year or more): Pick a particular day of the month
to do the exam, and then repeat your BSE on that day each month.
During a breast self-exam, you may notice lumps or a change in texture. Knowing the difference between harmless and
harmful breast lumps is important to your health.
Cysts
Fibroadenomas
Pseudolumps
Breast Cysts:
What is it? This is a harmless (benign) fluid - filled sac of tissue. It can grow right within the breast tissue.
What does it feel like? This breast lump will feel smooth and squishy. If you are pressing on a cyst, it will have some give
to it, like a water balloon. A cyst can move around and can change in size during your menstrual cycle.
Where is it? Breast cysts can be located near the surface, or deeper inside, close to your chest wall. If the cyst is closer
to the surface, it is easy to find and easy to distinguish from other lumps. But if it is deeper inside, it's more difficult to
distinguish it from other kinds of breast lumps, because when you press on it, you're actually trying to work through
layers of breast tissue, which may be dense and firm.
Treatment: Your doctor can help you determine that a lump is a harmless cyst, by doing a fine needle aspiration with a
syringe. This procedure removes the fluid from inside the cyst, which deflates and most likely will not return.
When does it appear? Commonly appears in women who are in their 30's, 40's and 50's. They are most often found in
women who are nearing menopause.
Breast Fibroadenomas:
What is it? This is a benign group of cells that support other kinds of cells in your breast. These are made of fibrous and
glandular tissues.
What does it feel like? This will feel like a round breast lump, and can be hard or firm. It can be moved around during a
breast self-exam.
Where is it? These can be located near the surface of the breast and are easily felt.
Treatment: A fibroadenoma can be removed, if needed, with a lumpectomy, a laser ablation,or cryoablation. If there is
some doubt about the fibroadenoma, it can biopsied, to make sure that it is harmless.
When does it appear? Usually appears in teens and younger women. May occur during pregnancy. Not common in post-
menopausal women.
Breast Pseudolumps:
What is it? These are benign, and may be scar tissue, hardened silicone, necrotic (dead) fat, or a rib bone pressing into
breast tissue and compressing it.
What does it feel like? This kind of breast lump can feel quite hard and usually doesn't change shape or size during a
menstrual cycle. It may or may not be movable, depending on what it is actually composed of.
Where is it? Pseudolumps can be located near the surface, or deeper inside the breast, close to the chest wall.
Treatment: To be sure that a pseudolump is harmless, get a mammogram and ultrasound, and if those are not clear,
have a needle biopsy done, so that a tissue sample can be analyzed by a pathologist. If it is bothersome, you can have it
surgically removed.
When does it appear? If you've previously had breast surgery or enhancement done, or if a rib has shifted, then a
pseudolump may occur.
Breast Cancer:
What is it? A malignant lump that is made of abnormal breast tissue cells, growing in an uncontrolled way.
What does it feel like? A malignant breast lump will have an irregular shape (not round) with a pebbly surface,
somewhat like a golf ball. It will be very hard, like a slice of raw carrot. It may not be movable during a breast self-exam,
but since tissue around it may move, it's sometimes hard to know if the lump is moving, or if healthy tissue around it is
moving. A clinical breast exam and a mammogram will help to clear up the diagnosis. A needle biopsy would provide
more information about the lump.
Where is it? Breast cancer can be located near the surface, or deeper inside the breast, close to the chest wall. It can
also occur in the armpit area, where there is more breast tissue.
Treatment: The lump itself may be treated with one, or a combination of therapies: surgery, chemotherapy, radiation,
and hormone suppression therapy. Talking with your doctor will help you decide on the best treatment plan for your
particular diagnosis.
When does it appear? Breast cancer may appear in women who are pubescent, in their fertile years, peri-menopausal,
or postmenopausal.
Definition
By Mayo Clinic staff
A testicular exam is an inspection of the appearance and feel of your testicles. You can do a testicular exam
yourself, typically standing in front of a mirror.
Routine testicular exams can give you a greater awareness of the condition of your testicles and help you detect
when changes occur. Testicular exams can also help you identify potential testicular problems, such as testicular
cancer. Lumps or other changes found during a testicular exam aren't always a sign of cancer, but still need to
be checked by a doctor.
Risks
By Mayo Clinic staff
A testicular exam doesn't pose any risks. If you notice a cause for concern, however, the follow-up exam might
lead to unnecessary worry and medical attention. For example, if you discover a suspicious lump, you may end
up having a procedure to remove tissue for examination (biopsy). If it turns out the lump was noncancerous
(benign), you might feel that you've undergone an invasive procedure unnecessarily.
Testicular self-exams alone don't reduce the number of deaths from testicular cancer. Because of the low
incidence of testicular cancer and the potential for unnecessary anxiety and intervention, some men choose not
to do routine testicular exams.
No special preparation is necessary to do a testicular exam. The American Cancer Society recommends doing a
monthly testicular exam if you have certain risk factors for testicular cancer, such as an undescended testicle,
certain congenital abnormalities, previous testicular cancer or a family history of testicular cancer. Some
doctors, however, recommend that all men do a monthly testicular self-exam beginning anytime after puberty
— preferably at about the same time every month.
CLICK TO ENLARGE
Testicular self-examination
To do a testicular exam, stand unclothed in front of a mirror — preferably after a warm bath or shower. Heat
relaxes the scrotum, making it easier for you to check for anything unusual. Then:
Look for swelling. Hold your penis out of the way and examine the skin of the scrotum.
Examine each testicle with both hands. Place your index and middle fingers under the testicle and your thumbs
on top.
Gently roll the testicle between your thumbs and fingers. Look and feel for hard lumps, smooth rounded
bumps or any change in the size, shape or consistency of the testicle.
While you're doing the testicular exam, you may notice a few things about your testicles that seem unusual —
but aren't signs of cancer. For example:
One of your testicles is larger than the other. It's normal for one testicle to be slightly larger. It's only a cause for
concern if there's a change in the size of one of your testicles.
You have bumps on the skin of your scrotum. This can be caused by ingrown hairs, a rash or other skin
problems.
You feel a soft, ropy cord. This is a normal part of the scrotum called the epididymis. It leads upward from the
top of the back part of each testicle.
Results
By Mayo Clinic staff
Don't be embarrassed about contacting your doctor if you find a lump or other problem during a testicular exam.
It's especially important to contact your doctor if you notice any of the following:
Depending on the circumstances, your doctor may do a testicular exam followed by a blood test, ultrasound or
biopsy.
Remember, unusual signs and symptoms aren't necessarily due to testicular cancer — but they still need to be
checked out by a doctor. Testicular cancer is easiest to treat when it's detected early. Even if your signs and
symptoms are caused by something other than testicular cancer, you may still need treatment.
A digital rectal exam is an examination of the lower rectum. The doctor uses a gloved, lubricated finger to
check for abnormalities.
In men, the test is used to examine the prostate, looking for abnormal enlargement or other signs of prostate
cancer.
In women, a digital rectal exam may be performed during a routine gynecologic examination.
A digital rectal exam is also done to collect stool for testing for fecal occult (hidden) blood as part of screening
for colorectal cancer.
This procedure is also done before other tests, such as a colonoscopy, to make sure nothing is blocking the
rectum before inserting an instrument.
Normal Results
The digital rectal exam is usually treated as an initial screening examination. It is usually done together with
other tests to rule out abnormalities.
A "normal" finding is when the doctor does not feel any abnormalities -- but this test does NOT completely rule
out potential problems.
If tests reveal occult (hidden) blood, but there is no obvious hemorrhaging (bleeding), the patient will undergo
blood tests for anemia, followed by colonoscopy.
A male patient with an enlarged or nodular prostate will undergo a blood test of prostate specific antigen (PSA
test), and then possibly a prostate ultrasound and biopsy after referral to a urologist.
Risks
The exam itself generally carries no risk, but it is possible to have a normal exam and still have an occult
(unidentified/hidden) source of bleeding.
Metabolic Acidosis
Etiology: lactic acidosis, ketoacidosis, uremic acidosis; diarrhea (more bicarbonate losses)
Patho: compensatory hyperventilation
Sodium bicarbonate may be given when a patient is experiencing lactic acidosis secondary to shock. It is
administered cautiously because the carbon dioxide produced crosses rapidly into the cells and may cause
paradoxical worsening of intracellular hypercarbia and acidosis.
Metabolic Acidosis
Nursing Responsibilities
Monitor cardiovascular status closely, noting: BP, PR and rhythm, capillary refill, warmth and color of
extremities
Institute safety precautions, such as: keeping bed side rails up, keeping bed brakes locked, securing all
invasive lines properly
Metabolic Alkalosis
Risk factors:
Excess aldosterone
Etiology:
Metabolic Alkalosis
Hypokalemia: K+ moves from ECF to ICF due to hydrogen ions moving out of the cell to ECF
Metabolic Alkalosis
Nursing Responsibilities
Institute safety precautions, such as: keeping bed side rails up, keeping bed brakes locked, securing all
invasive lines properly
Monitor respiratory rate and pattern, lung sounds, skin color, and mental status
Respiratory Acidosis
Risk factors:
Excess acid in body fluids
Etiology:
Hypoventilation
COPD; Cystic Fibrosis; airway obstruction; spinal cord injury; CVA; respiratory depressant drugs; inadequate
mechanical ventilation
Respiratory Acidosis
Patho:
Clinical:
Decreased pH
High PaCo2
Vasodilatation
Respiratory Acidosis
Nursing Responsibilities
Position the patient in semi-Fowler’s or another comfortable position to ease the work of breathing
Improve ventilation with bronchodilators; postural drainage; antibiotic thx; regular coughing, turning, and
deep breathing & mechanical ventilation as appropriate
Respiratory Acidosis
Nursing Responsibilities
Monitor cardiovascular status, noting: BP, PR and rhythm, capillary refill, warmth and color of extremities
Respiratory Alkalosis
Risk factors:
Relative excess of base in body fluids secondary to > ventilatory elimination of CO2; pneumonia; shock;
severe anemia
Etiology:
Respiratory Alkalosis
Patho: Buffer response is to shift acid from ICF to the blood by moving HCO3 into the cells in exchange of
chloride
High pH; less PaC02; HCO3 normal or low due to compensation
Respiratory Alkalosis
Nursing Responsibilities
Encourage slow, deep breathing; instruct the patient to breathe into and out of a paper bag, if necessary, to
reverse hyperventilation
Ranges
< 80 mm Hg = hypoxemia
< 60 mm Hg may be seen in COPD patients
In blood:
Normal: 35 - 45 mm Hg
HCO3 (bicarbonate)
PaCo2 is normal
Compensation:
Primary metabolic acidosis can cause the patient to breathe faster to compensate (blow off CO2) by creating a
respiratory alkalosis state
This would be labeled as: Metabolic acidosis with a compensatory respiratory alkalosis
Interpreting ABGs:
(A Systematic Approach)
acidosis = < 7.35 --------------- 7.35-7.45 = normal --------------- > 7.45 = alkalosis or compensated state
step 2 Evaluate the pCO2
go to HCO3
Note: If CO2 and HCO3 are both abnormal, look to see which one has a change that matches the change in the
pH (i.e., CO2 acts as an acid; HCO3 acts as a base). This match will be the primary imbalance, while the other
system is compensating.
User-Submitted Article
How to Perform an ABG? Arterial Blood Gas Sampling is a blood test performed typically by a Doctor,
phlebotomist, pulmonary lab technician nurse or respiratory therapist. It involves drawing blood from the radial
artery, but also less commonly from the femoral or brachial artery.
The procedure takes about 5-10 minutes and results can be analyzed quickly.
To learn how to perform this procedure, for a class, job training or common knowledge, continue reading.
Difficulty: Moderate
Instructions
1. 1
INFORM THE PATIENT - You will begin the process by introducing yourself to the patient. Make sure
to check his/her identity either verbally or by looking at his wrist band if he/she is unconscious.
Let him/her know that you need to take a blood sample from his/her wrist (radial artery) and that he/she
may experience slight pain such as a sharp scratch. Get verbal consent.
Ask if there is a preference which hand you use. If there is no preference choose the non dominant hand.
2. 2
Protective Glasses
Gloves
Provodine-Iodine Swab
Alcohol Swab
ABG Sampling Kit
2x2 Gauze
Bag of Ice
3. 3
PERFORM ALAN'S TEST - Alan's test will determine whether there is collateral circulation to the limb
and if the artery is patent. If it is not patent, you will need to try the other hand.
To perform Alan's test, palpate the radial and ulnar arteries. Ask the patient to make a tight fist. While
their hand is in a fist, put pressure on the radial and ulnar artery and occlude the blood flow. The hand
will turn white. Tell your client to open their fist and release the ulnar artery. The hand should turn pink
again. If this happens continue to the next step. If it does not do Alan's test on the other hand.
4. 4
PREPARE THE AREA - Now you will want to clean the area around the radial artery with the
provodine-iodine swab. You will want to start at the middle and clean out in a circular motion. Let dry
and wipe away with the alcohol swab.
5. 5
ANESTHETIZE THE AREA (OPTIONAL) - An optional step is to anesthetize the area with 1-2%
lidocaine. You will only need about 2mm and should form a bleb under the skin.
6. 6
PREPARE THE SYRINGE - If you do not have a abg kit, you will want to make sure the syringe has
heparin and roll the syringe in your hand so that the inside is covered with heparin.
7. 7
INSERT THE NEEDLE - You will want to palpate the artery and feel for a pulse. The pulse is the major
indicator you are drawing from the correct spot. Roll your finger right up from the pulse when you are
ready to insert the needle. Insert the needle at a 45 degree angle making sure the bevel is up. Aim for the
pulse, not the bone (as the bone will be painful for your patient). You will want to collect about 3mm of
blood.
8. 8
REMOVE THE NEEDLE - Gently and quickly remove the needle and at the same time put 2x2 gauze
over the over the incision. Press firmly for two-five minutes. (You may want to ask the patient to do this
as well).
9. 9
PREPARE THE SAMPLE FOR LAB - Next you will want to remove the air bubbles. Remove the
needle and place cap on the syringe. Dispose of needle in appropriate place. Send the sample to the
laboratory in the bag of ice. Inform the lab about the sample.