61

4.0 BACKYARD OR HOUSEHOLD LEVEL COMPOSTING

Given the thin, shallow, clayey and acidic soils in Montserrat, composting has the
potential to make significant improvements to agriculture, as well as diverting waste
from New Windward landfill.

In May 2001, the Montserrat National Trust held a series of environmental

workshops. As part of these workshops, information sessions for the public were held,
to educate some local farmers and gardeners about composting. Additionally, a
special presentation was made to the Farmer’s Union, as well as members of the Davy
Hill Community Action Group. Members of St Peter’s Mother’s Union were invited
to participate in a composting survey (they declined) and were asked whether they
needed assistance with composting – a few members requested information. Some
home composters were visited to discuss the state of their compost heaps and
suggestions were made for changes which could improve the efficacy of composting.

Two demonstration compost bins were constructed, by Pete Hobbis, at the Montserrat
National Trust. One was built from new timber and the other was constructed from
reused timber pallets, which can be easily obtained gratis from Rams Emdee
supermarket or from the port at Carr’s Bay. Mappie (Philemon) Murrain, botanical
gardens manager at the National Trust, constructed two demonstration pits or
trenches, examples of traditional Montserratian methods of composting. A wire cage
containing composting leaves, and a plastic bin for composting kitchen and garden
wastes, imported from Canada, were also on display during the environmental
workshops.

Promotional leaflets for backyard composting, giving brief instructions of what to

compost and how to compost, were produced and some were distributed through the
National Trust.

4.1 DESCRIPTION OF COMPOSTING PROCESS AT HOUSEHOLD LEVEL.

A householder may compost using an open heap, a bin or a trench. Successful

backyard composting depends on obtaining and maintaining a high enough
temperature to enable compost to be produced in a reasonable time, and to kill any
 62

plant or human pathogens. It is also necessary to have sufficient moisture and oxygen
available to support the micro-organisms who actually do all the work of composting
for you while you wait. The advantage of using a bin, of dimensions approximately
1m x 1m x 1m, is that it can hold the waste in a cube shape which enables it to heat up
and retain its heat180. The open heaps are much easier to build and turn, but do not
heat up as effectively. Using a trench is an excellent method of retaining moisture,
during the dry season, and a compost pit is the easiest to turn, of all the methods.

Figure 4.1 Demonstration compost bins used at the Montserrat National Trust

Figure 4.2 Compost pit used as a demonstration model, at the Montserrat National Trust
 63

Forming the composting mixture into a pile helps it to retain moisture and stops if
from cooling down. A taller vertical stack is better than a shallow spread-out heap to
improve drainage and prevent waterlogging, especially during the wet season. A
compost bin is more of a deterrent to animals than an open heap. Compost pits or
trenches tend to be useful in areas which are very arid, where moisture must be
conserved at all costs, or in very cool regions where they help to retain heat181. During
the wet season, compost pits can easily become waterlogged.

A compost pit is made by digging a trench several feet deep, lining with plastic and
filling with alternate layers of garden wastes and manure, to form a pile extending a
few feet above the ground. The top of the compost is covered over with another
plastic sheet, punctured with a few small holes to encourage airflow. The compost pit
is turned and watered every second day.

For countries like Montserrat which have high evaporation rates, a compost heap with
an initial water content of 65% can have its moisture content drop to 20 to 30% in a
period of only a week during the dry season. For each cubic yard of finished compost,
200 to 300 gallons of water may need to be added during the composting process182.
When the compost is sufficiently wet, it will have the consistency of a squeezed-out
sponge. The compost in the bins at the Natural Trust were given one 5-gallon bucket
of water daily during the dry season. Due to time constraints no experience was
gained during the wet season to determine whether the addition of moisture was
necessary or desirable. The moisture content of the demonstration compost piles
should be noted if a follow-up visit to Montserrat is made in October.

To obtain good quality compost within a reasonable time frame, it is necessary to use
a mixture of wastes to give a carbon: nitrogen ratio of approximately 30:1 in the
initial stages of composting. The carbon: nitrogen ratios of some wastes which could
be used by a farmer or gardener as composting feedstocks, or which could be
composted commercially, are tabulated overleaf. Note that wastes such as meat
scraps or septic tank sludge should never be composted by a backyard gardener, they
are merely included in this table for the sake of completeness, for comparison
purposes and so that they can be referred to in later chapters.
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CARBON: NITROGEN RATIOS OF COMMONLY COMPOSTED FEEDSTOCKS

MATERIAL %N C:N RATIO
Bread 2.10
Cabbage 3.6 12
Cardboard 0.10 400-563
Coffee Grounds 20
Cow Manure 2.4 19
Corn Cobs 0.6 56-123
Corn Stalks 0.6-0.8 60-73
Cotton Seed Meal 7.7 7
Ferns 1.15 43
Fish Scraps 10.6 3.6
Fruit 1.4 40
Garbage (Raw) 2.15 15-25
Grass Clippings 2.4 12-19
Hardwood Bark 0.241 223
Hardwoods (Average) 0.09 560
Hay (general) 2.10 -
Hay (legume) 2.5 16
Hen Manure 8 6-15
Horse Manure 1.6 25-30
Leaves 0.9 54
Lettuce 3.7 -
Newsprint 0.06-0.14 398-852
Onion 2.65 15
Paper - 100-800
Peppers 2.6 15
Potato Tops 1.5 25
Poultry Carcasses 2.4 5
Raw Sawdust 0.11 511
Rotted Sawdust 0.25 200-500
Sewage Sludge 2-6.9 5-16
Sheep Manure 2.7 16
Slaughtering Wastes 7-10 2-4
Softwood Bark 0.14 496
Softwoods (Average) 0.09 641
Tomato 3.3 12
Turnip Tops 2.3 19
Vegetable Produce 2.7 19
Water Hyacinth - 20-30
Whole Carrots 1.6 27
Whole Turnip 1.0 44
Table 4.1 Carbon : Nitrogen Ratios of Some Commonly Composted Wastes
 65

Usually, several wastes must be mixed together to get the optimum C:N ratio for
composting. The figures given in the above table could be used if a farmer was
concerned about having the best possible C:N ratio for faster composting. For
example, if a Montserratian farmer has a quantity of say 50 kg of mixed fruit waste
with a C:N ratio of 40 and 10 kg of leaves with a C:N ratio of 54, how much sheep
manure, with a C:N ratio of 16, should be added to get the best C:N ratio for optimum
composting?

C:N overall = C:N fruit waste x mass fruit waste + C:N leaves x mass leaves + C:N manure waste x mass manure
Mass fruit waste + mass leaves + mass manure
30 = 40 x 50 + 54 x 10 + 16 x mass manure
50 + 10 + mass manure
30 = 2000 + 540 + 16 x mass manure
60 + mass manure
1800 + 30 mass manure = 2540 + 16 x mass manure
14 mass manure = 740
mass manure = 53kg ≈ 50kg

In deciding what to compost, a farmer may also take into account the specific nutrient
needs of the plant. For example, fruit and flowers need high levels of phosphorous
and potassium whereas lawns need high levels of nitrogen183. Nitrogen contributes to
the production of leaves, stems and foliage, phosphorous is necessary for the
promotion of root development and to initiate flowering and potassium is necessary
for the production of starches184. Potassium is essential for tuberous plants such as
sweet potatoes, as well as forming strong stems and starchy fruits, and is particularly
beneficial for light, sandy soils. A comparison of the nutrient levels of different types
of manures is given below in Table 4.2:
MANURE %MOISTURE %NITROGEN %PHOSPHOROUS %POTASSIUM
Cattle 80 1.67 1.11 0.56
Horse 75 2.29 1.25 1.38
Sheep 68 3.75 1.87 1.25
Pig 82 3.75 1.87 1.25
Hen 56 6.27 5.92 3.27
Table 4.2 Nutrient Content of Different Types of Manure Used in Composting.
 66

Considering the data in the above table, it would seem that hen manure is ideal for all
applications, whereas for flowers or fruit with a high potassium requirement, horse
manure is ideal, and pig or sheep manure is the best for all other applications when
hen manure is unavailable. (There are relatively few chickens on Montserrat, though
some have recently been imported to give the industry a boost185). It must also be
borne in mind that pig manure has a high moisture content and that both pig manure
and chicken manure should be blended with carbonaceous materials when
composting186.

Another important consideration in deciding what to compost is whether plant

diseases or weeds will be spread by the use of compost. Further research is necessary
to determine which of the weeds listed in section 1.2.12. have seeds which are
inactivated at the sort of temperatures which are reached in a backyard compost heap,
and also which of the plant diseases listed in section 1.2.11 can be spread by the use
of compost made from diseased plants. Some plants which are found in typical
Caribbean gardens are poisonous to humans and these plants should not be
composted. Poisonous plants found in the Caribbean include the Poinsettia,
(Euphorbia pulcherimma), other species of Euphorbia, the Frangipani (Plumeria spp.)
and the Manchineel (Hippomane mancinella), all of which have an irritating sap187.
The latex which exudes from cut surface such as branches which have been pruned
from the trees is harmful to human skin, hence it is recommended that green waste
from these plants not be composted. The fishtail palm (Caryota mitis) has fruits which
have crystals on their surface which sting the skin. Of even greater concern are the
highly poisonous plants Datura (Datura), Dumb Cane (Dieffenbachia) and Oleander
Nerium which contain toxic substances that could easily kill a small child if ingested.
Even just touching the plant and then inadvertently touching one’s lips or eating
without washing one’s hands is very dangerous. These plants should never be touched
without gloves, not for composting or any other reason. They should never ever be
added to a compost heap, especially one that is easily accessible to children and small
animals.

Other factors affecting the composting process include pH, moisture and surface
area/particle size. Usually it is not necessary for a farmer to worry about pH, and
especially not a backyard gardener. However it may be helpful to keep in mind that
 67

fruit and vegetable wastes have a low pH188, and therefore composting fruit and
vegetable wastes alone may not be helpful for Montserrat’s acidic soils. However, if
these wastes are mixed with other materials such as shredded green waste, then there
should be no such problems. It is necessary to avoid anaerobic conditions when
composting, as these tend to lower the pH189.

Moisture levels should preferably be in the range 40-60% for optimum composting190.
To determine whether this level has been reached, the home composter should
squeeze a handful of compost. If it crumbles, then it is too dry. If a huge amount of
water runs out of it, then it is too wet. If just one drop squeezes out of it, and it feels
moist but not wet, then it is just right. If the pile is too wet, it can be watered,
preferably while it is being turned to make sure that the entire pile is at the same
moisture level, as much as possible. Adding dry materials such as shredded green
waste not only helps to reduce excessive moisture levels but also helps to maintain
structure for improved aeration. Shredding green waste greatly improves its surface
area, enabling it to break down faster. As there is only one shredder on the island, a
machete or pruning shears may need to be used for backyard gardeners to cut their
green wastes into smaller pieces.

Table 4.3 below (continued overleaf) contains a list of some typical feedstocks which
may be used for home composting, with some of their characteristics191. C:N ratio and
nutrient content have already been considered in Tables 4.1 and 4.2, however
structure, moisture and degradability are included in the table below, as well as some
general disadvantages of using certain feedstocks or pretreatment which is necessary
to make them more useful.
TYPE OF C:N RATIO, STRUCTURE, MOISTURE DEGRADABILITY TREATMENT CAUTIONS
WASTE NUTRIENTS POROSITY CONTENT REQUIRED
Poultry 10 Poor Moist Good Bulking Odour
Manure Material
Poultry 13-30 Medium Low-dry Medium - Odour
manure
(with litter)
Manure(ca 8-13 Poor Liquid Good Mix with dry Odour
ttle, matter
undried)

Table 4.3 (cont’d overleaf) Characteristics of Typical Feedstocks Used in Home Composting. (Dougherty, 1999)
 68

TYPE OF C:N RATIO, STRUCTURE, MOISTURE DEGRADABILITY TREATMENT CAUTIONS

WASTE NUTRIENTS POROSITY CONTENT REQUIRED
Manure 5-7 Poor High Good - Odour,
(pig) moisture
Dried cow 20 Medium Medium High - -
manure
Manure 25-30 Good Good Medium - -
with straw
Horse 25 Good Good Medium - -
manure
Vegetable 13 Poor Moist High - Low pH,
wastes odour
Bark 100-300; low Very good Medium; Very good Pre-grind -
P; Ca; low pH good
Sawdust ~230 Very good ≤50%, good Excellent Already ground -
(fir)
Aged <100 Very good ≤50%, good Poor Already ground -
sawdust
Cardboard 200-500 Medium to poor Very low Very good Shred Boron,
colours
Wood ash N/A; K-Ca- Poor Very low None None Metals, high
(NOT rich; high in pH
volcanic heavy metals
ash!)
Fruits Poor in P, Ca Poor Medium Fair to good Lime addition Low pH
Garden 20-60 Good Medium Medium Grinding -
wastes
Green 30-60 Medium to good Good/dry Good - -
foliage
Leaves - Good - - - Matting
Grass 12-25 Poor Moist High Bulking Odour
clippings material, pre-
drying
Slaughter 15-18 Poor Moist High - Odour
wastes
Food <25, high K, Very poor High Very high Bulking Pathogens,
scraps salt material salt
Coffee - Medium Medium to Medium - -
grounds high

Table 4.3 (cont’d) Characteristics of Typical Feedstocks Used in Home Composting. (Dougherty, 1999)
 69

Important considerations in backyard composting include ensuring high enough

temperatures are reached and that the aerobic bacteria which carry out the composting
process have sufficient oxygen to survive and reproduce. To avoid anaerobic
conditions which lead to odour and attract vermin, as well as to achieve high
temperatures for faster composting, it is necessary to ensure that the compost is
sufficiently aerated. Usually, this is achieved by turning the compost. Sometimes,
when the trench or pit method of composting is used, perforated agricultural pipes
may be used to form air channels in the compost pile192.

It is highly unlikely that any farmers or gardeners on Montserrat have a soil

thermometer. To determine whether a compost pile is heating, the farmer can insert a
hand in the pile to see how hot it is. However, for those who do not like handling
immature compost (i.e. the majority of Montserratian farmers and gardeners), a metal
bar such as a crowbar, reinforcing rod or steel rule can be used to determine whether
the pile is heating well. The pile’s temperature is over 50°C if the hot end of the metal
bar cannot be touched for more than about three seconds without feeling
discomfort193.

To avoid odour and vermin it is recommended that if fresh kitchen wastes are added
to the compost heap, they should be buried well below the surface. Adding wastes
which have an open structure (e.g. shredded green waste) to the compost heap will
also help to trap air and keep the compost aerobic.

Rapid composting occurs at temperatures of 32-60°C, and a temperature of 40°C

should be attained for at least 5 days to significantly reduce pathogen levels in
compost, with the temperature exceeding 55°C for at least 4 hours during this 5-day
period. To further reduce pathogens, it is recommended that temperatures of 55°C
should be attained for at least 3 days for aerated static piles and 15 days for windrow
systems, with at least 5 turnings194 195. These are the temperature standards which the
USEPA mandates for sanitising sewage sludge compost.196 Backyard compost heaps
have obviously much lower levels of pathogens than septic tank sludge, however
some pathogens such as Salmonella can still cause problems, hence it is
recommended that a temperature of 55°C be exceeded where possible.
 70

High temperatures in a backyard compost heap are affected by the size of the compost
pile, the ambient weather conditions, the amount of aeration, the particle size or
texture of the feedstocks in the pile, moisture level, carbon to nitrogen ratio and the
composition of the feedstocks used to build the pile.197

Backyard compost heaps are less likely to achieve high temperatures than carefully
controlled large-scale municipal solid waste facilities. However they are still able to
achieve some levels of pathogen reduction. Pathogen reduction is caused not only by
heat, but also by micro-organisms in the compost competing for the same food as the
pathogens, inhibiting them, producing antibiotics to kill them and in some cases even
eating them. 198

If lower temperatures are achieved in a backyard compost heap, then these

temperatures must be reached for a longer time e.g. a temperature of 50°C,
maintained for 24 hours, is sufficient to kill all pathogens in compost, whereas a lower
temperature of 46°C may take nearly a week. Pathogens are unable to survive more
than half an hour at temperatures of 55-60°C, however pathogen numbers are
significantly reduced even at temperatures of not greater than 40°C. Temperatures of
45-59°C allow for maximum biodiversity for the fastest possible rate of
composting.199

It should also be noted that high temperatures are not the only means of pathogen
destruction. Predation or inhibition by micro-organisms or other fauna in a compost
heap can accomplish significant levels of pathogen reduction. For example tests
carried out by Meekings (1995) 200 on composts contain Ascaris eggs, one of the most
persistent pathogens affecting humans, revealed significant degeneration and retarded
development of these pathogens at a low temperature of only 30°C. The effect was
attributed to micro-organisms, as other factors which may have caused pathogen
destruction were carefully controlled. Thus while high temperatures are desirable and
lead to faster composting, Montserratian farmers need not worry excessively if their
piles do not heat to extremely high temperatures.
 71

Some of the factors described above such as temperature and aeration must be
controlled for composting in any country anywhere. However, one additional factor
which has not been mentioned previously which affects Montserrat with its
pronounced wet season is drainage. Bannochie and Light (1993) suggest that compost
heaps in the Caribbean should be laid on a base of branches, bamboo and coconut
limbs, approximately 50 cm in thickness201. Feedstocks for the composting process
are laid on top of this base, which is designed to allow the compost heap to drain well
during the wet season. During the wet season the top of the compost pile should be
slightly convex if possible to allow water to drain from it. Bannochie and Light also
suggest that during the dry season the top of the compost heap should be slightly
concave to collect and store water. They suggest covering the heap with plastic
sheeting only at night.

4.2 BENEFITS AND DRAWBACKS OF COMPOSTING IN MONTSERRAT

General benefits of composting include improvements to the soil structure enabling it

to better retain water and nutrients or fertiliser202, as well as increased soil fertility and
reduced need for fertiliser application. This leads to a reduction in the negative
environmental impacts of fertiliser production and overuse (such as groundwater
contamination and fertiliser runoff which causes algal blooms). Displacing organic
wastes from landfills also reduces the environmental impacts of leachate, which can
contaminate ground and surface water, and the impacts of methane production, which
contributes to global warming. Home composting reduces the cost to the community
of waste collection and landfill disposal, and frees up funds for more essential
services such as education or health.

Improved soil structure leads to increased aeration, improved stability of soil

aggregates203, increased water penetration and retention, increased total pore space in
the soil, reduced bulk density and increased cation exchange capacity. The addition of
compost leads to a small increase in plant nutrient content (not directly comparable
with the use of synthetic fertilisers) and the microbial population of the compost helps
to improve the soil’s resistance to infestations of plant diseases such as the soil
nematodes which cause root rot. This reduces the demand for fungicides and
 72

pesticides,204 205 206 207 especially for plants grown in containers. The use of compost
moderates the soil temperature and discourages insects208. Composting leads to
improvements in soil texture which make the soil more workable, as soil crumb
formation is increased and the tendency of the soil to form a crust is reduced.
Compost can also be used as a mulch on top of the soil, to suppress weeds and retain
soil moisture.

For Montserrat, with its soil erosion problems, the use of compost is particularly
beneficial. The disease suppression characteristics of compost are also particularly
beneficial for Montserrat, as compost has been found to increase resistance to
Fusarium, Anthracnose209 (Colletotrichum)210, Pseudomonas (Banana Moko
Disease)211 Pythium and Phytoptera, plant diseases which are prevalent in the West
Indies212 (see section 1.2.11), as well as root rot nematodes213, common insect pests in
the Caribbean. Compost is also particularly good for protection of plant disease
affecting peppers, lettuce, cabbage214, squash, cucumbers215, beans and tomatoes,
plants which are commonly grown in Montserratian farms and gardens.

Composting wastes and returning them to the soil is much more beneficial than the
alternative of burning them. In Montserrat, in 1993 when livestock were more likely
to be tethered, it was noted that livestock owners set fire to sloping pastureland to
remove older plants and permit the growth of younger fodder which is easier for the
animals to eat216. This burning tended to be carried out just before the onset of heavy
rain. Slash and burn agriculture has also been practised in Montserrat for centuries.

The effect of burning crop residues or grasses on the soil is to raise soil pH and
exchangeable potassium, but it may reduce total phosphorous, total Kjeldahl nitrogen,
organic matter content, cation exchange capacity, exchangeable sodium, calcium and
magnesium, manganese, iron and zinc217. In contrast the use of compost formed from
the same material as that which is customarily burnt tends to slightly increase the
nutrient levels and their availability, and also increase the soil’s organic matter
content, with all the attendant benefits that this brings. (Although one study of burnt
soil218 shows that available nutrients actually increased following a light fire which
left trees intact). Even if there is no shortage of nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium
in burnt soils, plant growth may be inhibited by the production of phytotoxic
 73

compounds at the temperatures of the fire and the negative effects of these phytotoxic
compounds may be suppressed by the use of mature compost219.

Slash and burn agriculture tends to reduce the soil’s microflora, whereas the use of
compost leads to an increase in the soil’s microbial population220.

In Montserrat, approximately 10,290 kg of fertiliser were imported last year, for a cost
of $22,311.00 Eastern Caribbean dollars221. Given the unsustainable nature of
Montserrat’s economy, there is a huge financial incentive to use compost as an
alternative to fertiliser or to reduce the quantity of fertiliser which needs to be applied
to the soil. As Montserrat has acidic volcanic soils, the use of compost could also
raise the soil pH without the expensive addition of lime, thus also enabling the growth
of beneficial soil bacteria, and reducing the amount of magnesium, potassium,
calcium, copper and molybdenum which would otherwise be leached out of the acidic
soil during the wet season222. Even if lime is to be added, the amount of lime which is
needed is reduced if compost is also applied to the soil223.

Montserrat is far from being self-sufficient in agriculture. Last year, 1,882,796 tonnes
of food were imported, for a cost of $7,696,098224. The use of compost could improve
agriculture and reduce this dependency on imports, as well as possibly leading to
improvements in nutrition and health. Howard (1943)225, comments that

“When the health and physique of the northern Indian races were studied in detail,
the best were those of the Hunzas, a hardy, agile, and vigorous people, living in one
of the high mountain valleys of the Gilgit Agency…There is little or no difference
between the kinds of food eaten by these hillmen and the rest of northern India. There
is, however, a great difference in the way these foods are grown…[T]he very greatest
care is taken to return to the soil all human, animal and vegetable [refuse] after being
first composted together. Land is limited: upon the way it is looked after, life
depends.”

Increased use of compost could have a positive social impact, by reducing farmers
and gardeners’ spending on fertiliser and allowing the diverted funds to be spent on
other more useful goods and services, supporting the local economy.
 74

As Montserrat’s landfill is unlined, the increased use of composting would help to

reduce groundwater contamination from leachate.

With so many potential benefits, why isn’t everyone on Montserrat composting

everything in sight? Well, it must be borne in mind that there are a number of
potential problems associated with composting, which must be carefully managed.

Potential drawbacks associated with the use of compost include contamination of soils
with potentially toxic elements and compounds226, such as those contained in
pesticides sprayed on garden wastes, or those contained in the treated timber used to
make the compost bin, or copper chromated arsenic,227 contained in sawdust made
from treated timber waste. If weeds which have gone to seed are added to the compost
bin, then some seeds may not be inactivated at the temperatures reached in backyard
composting. Some plant diseases may also be inadvertently propagated by
composting, if diseased parts of plants are added to the compost bin.

Composting should not normally cause any health problems to the average person,
however one of the drawbacks of home composting is that people who suffer from
asthma may be adversely affected by dust which is stirred up when the compost is
turned. Additionally, compost heaps tend to contain a fungus Aspergillus fumigatus
which may cause allergic reactions in some people or may adversely affect those with
depressed immune systems.

Sometimes compost may have a negative effect, for example if the soil is severely
waterlogged then the improved water retention afforded by the compost would
actually make the problem worse228. Using compost for tree planting and forestry
applications may not always be entirely beneficial, especially if it is incorrectly
applied. If compost is added to the soil in the pit in which the tree is to be planted,
then roots find it difficult to cross through the compost modified soil to the
unmodified soil and their spread is limited. Generally improving the soil uniformly
across the entire field with compost avoids this problem of creating an unnatural
interface near the soil’s roots, and gives more successful results. It is important to
ensure that the compost is added to the soil prior to the planting of the trees, otherwise
the compost is likely to be ineffective and would be better utilised elsewhere.
 75

In Montserrat, the problem of increased water retention could be experienced during

the wet season, especially around Carr’s Bay where the soil is known to be prone to
waterlogging229, or at St John’s, where the soil has a high capacity for supplying
moisture. The problem is unlikely to occur elsewhere on the island, where the soil has
a moderate or low ability to retain moisture.

If compost is to be used for reforestation of Silver Hill, or for the proposed citrus
orchard at Davy Hill, then it should be applied uniformly to the soil before digging
pits to plant the trees, to avoid the problem of limiting root spread.

One of the main disadvantages of home composting is the time and effort that it takes,
time which could perhaps better be spent on other things. For the elderly, the disabled
or people who are not physically fit, turning compost may be impossible or very
difficult. Composting may also lead to an odour nuisance or an infestation of vermin
such as rats or cockroaches. However these nuisances do not necessarily affect all
composters, if their heaps are properly managed, by turning frequently and burying
fresh food wastes well below the top surface of the compost pile.

Weighing up the benefits and disadvantages of composting, is compost really

necessary or useful on Montserrat? Certainly, it is much more useful than airports,
conferences and consultants, an oversized police force, or the construction of even
more church buildings! In fact, about the only thing the Montserratian farmers need
more than compost is fences to keep out wandering cows, or some other means of
livestock control. However, just because composting could lead to enormous
improvements in agriculture in Montserrat, doesn’t mean that hordes of farmers and
gardeners are keen to compost. We all know that getting more exercise, eating more
green vegetables and not drinking excessively is good for us, but how many people
actually change their behaviour, just because they know that it is good for them.
Similarly, there are other strong motivating factors at work, which prevent the need
for composting from being keenly felt in Montserrat at present. Strategies for the
promotion of home composting in Montserrat, to make it become a more attractive
option, will be discussed in section 3.7.
 76

4.3 METHODS OF APPLICATION OF COMPOST

In Montserrat, which has pronounced wet and dry seasons and steep slopes, it is best
to apply compost when the wet season is just beginning, to improve the soil’s
drainage ability and prevent erosion and leaching of soil nutrients230. Mulches are best
applied when the dry season is just beginning, to prevent the soil and plant roots from
becoming too hot and to enable moisture to be retained in the soil.

Seeds should be sown or young plants planted out within two weeks of the application
of compost. The compost could be spread uniformly over the entire field and dug into
the soil, or a more targeted application could use mounds of compost or compost
applied in strips between rows of plants. For pumpkins, cucumbers (Cucurbita) and
squash (Cucumis), the use of mounds has been found to be particularly effective.

Compost can be used for germinating seeds. For the majority of seeds, the
recommended potting mixture is one part sieved garden soil, one part compost and
one part sand (by volume), moistened and mixed together well.

Figure 4.3 Compost from the demonstration brush and manure compost bin at Montserrat National
Trust is used for composting seedlings, blended in the ratio 3 parts sand: 2 parts soil: 1 part compost.

If compost is to be used as a growing medium in other countries such as the UK then

it is usually mixed with other materials such as bark, peat, or coir (a waste product of
the coconut industry). Chipped bark is unavailable locally in Montserrat, as is peat
(whose use is also undesirable from an environmental point of view), however coir
could be made available provided that someone could process it231. Compost should
not be used on its own as a potting medium, as it has a high pH, high bulk density
 77

high conductivity, inadequate available nitrogen and phosphorous content, and

excessive content of potassium, compared with plant requirements232.

Trials carried out in the UK show that the addition of 10% compost to soil used for
potted plants can be highly beneficial233. In a series of controlled trials with rye grass,
it was found that adding 10% compost to the soil in the potting mix gave a yield of
2.600 grams of rye grass per pot, whereas the control which had soil only, had a yield
of 1.721 grams per pot. Adding 1% compost gave a yield of 1.958 only, a slight
increase over soil only. Adding 10% compost decreased the soil’s bulk density and
increased the saturated hydraulic conductivity and the available water capacity.
Nitrogen levels for the mixture of soil plus 10% compost were 202 N mg/kg (NO3-N
& NH4-N) after 12 weeks whereas for soil only they were 28 mg/kg. This was in spite
of the fact that 68 mg/kg nitrogen fertiliser was added to the soil whereas only 4
mg/kg was added to the soil plus 10% compost mix. Because green waste compost
had a structure which broke down when it became too moist, it was necessary to add
the compost to soil rather than using it neat.

Trials of compost application to agricultural land have also been carried out in the
UK, to determine the optimum application levels. Green waste compost was applied
at depths of 5cm and 15 cm, and for loading rates of 25, 50, 100 and 200 tonnes/ha.
Growth was most enhanced for application rates of 100-200 tonnes/ha, even though
this exceeds recommended guidelines. The MAFF Code of Good Agricultural
Practice (1994)234 recommends a limit of 250 kg ha-1 y-1 for nitrogen, which gives 25
tonnes/ha as the maximum recommended application rate. However this limit is set by
the European Commission’ s Nitrate Directive and is designed to protect areas which
are sensitive to high levels of nitrate. As Montserrat’s water is primarily derived from
springs whose catchment areas tend to be located on the higher slopes above
farmlands, nitrate contamination is unlikely to be an issue in Montserrat. Hence it is
recommended that compost can be applied to agricultural lands at levels of up to 200
t/ha.

Compost application rates may be limited by their heavy metal content, however this
is primarily a limiting factor for composts made from sewage sludge or contaminated
 78

municipal solid waste rather than those made from kitchen or garden wastes at a
household or farm level.

Compost should be worked into the first 30 cm of soil, or at least into the first 5-8
cm235. For most plants, only mature compost should be applied, however some plants
such as corn and squash are able to make use of compost which has not yet reached its
final stage of maturity236.

It is possible to apply compost in liquid form as a compost tea. To make compost tea,
fill a porous bag (cloth or woven plastic sack) with compost and place in a large
container of water237. The resulting compost tea liquid can be used after about a week.
One Montserratian farmer, John Keller, fills recycled plastic bottles with a compost
tea, and buries these bottles at regular intervals of approximately 20 cm apart,
throughout rows of plants. Small holes in the plastic bottle allow the compost tea to
seep gradually into the soil, assisting to maintain moisture levels during the dry
season as well as adding nutrients to the soil for the growing plants.

Compost teas have been found to be very effective at suppressing plant diseases such
as fungal infestations, when sprayed onto plants directly rather than being applied to
the soil238. Liquid feeds may be particularly beneficial in Montserrat, where in some
areas the soil is so weak that plants fall out when attempts are made to plant them.
Excessive application of solid compost could lead to too many air spaces in the
soil239.

4.4 CASE STUDIES

Three case studies can be considered to illustrate the problems and potential for
backyard or farm scale composting in Montserrat.

Teresa Sillcott, manager of the Grand View Hotel, has a small compost heap in her
garden. The garden is used to produce food for the hotel, including passionfruits,
mangoes, pawpaw, bananas, almonds, herbal teas, spinach, tomatoes, green
vegetables and root vegetables such as dasheen. The compost pile is quite small, has
not been regularly turned and there are problems with vermin such as rats, in the
Baker Hill area. Because of the small pile size the compost does not heat up very
 79

much. Teresa was unable to attend the workshops at the Montserrat National Trust,
and requested some information about composting, as well as visiting the National
Trust to look at the demonstration composting units. As a result of this visit, she has
obtained some pallets to construct a compost bin, which will improve the shape of the
compost pile. If wire mesh is used in the side walls of the bin, it may also help to
discourage vermin. Teresa is now aware of the benefits of turning and watering
compost, which, if she finds time to do it, will improve the quality of her compost (by
discouraging anaerobic conditions) and increase the speed of composting.

Jean Kelsic is a Montserratian lawyer who has an extremely large garden in

Montserrat’s Old Towne. He has a number of large composting bays constructed of
cement blocks. Leaves are being composted, as well as kitchen and garden waste.
Manure is being dried separately for use on the garden and is not composted together
with carbonaceous materials. The compost piles are at ambient temperature, and are
never turned. The compost is removed from the bays for use in the garden, after 1
year. There do not seem to be any problems with vermin, or odour nuisance.

As a result of publicity about composting which surrounded the environmental

workshops at the Montserrat National Trust, Jean Kelsic requested information about
how to make his compost piles better. He was advised of the benefits of turning, and
of maintaining an adequate C:N ratio. However, in the end Jean decided that he was
quite happy to wait one year, his compost was not causing him any problems at all at
present, and therefore he was happy to continue with what he is already doing.

John Keller is a farmer who grows a variety of fruits and vegetables on a

comparatively large area of land, which he sells in a small stall in the market area of
Salem on Friday and Saturday mornings. The farm is on steeply sloping land which is
exposed to high winds at times.

John has a pond containing water hyacinths, an ideal feedstock for composting as they
have a C:N ratio of 20-30. The use of water hyacinths also helps to keep the compost
pile moist, at least in the initial stages of composting. There are three small compost
piles on John’s farm, spread out at some distance away from each other to minimise
the time spent walking from the area under cultivation to the nearest pile. Turning is
 80

carried out occasionally and the piles are occasionally watered, however due to the
high windspeeds the compost dries out again particularly quickly.

John Keller’s compost heap was observed on Saturday 30 June 2001. There were
three small piles and as they were so small, they were all at ambient temperature. The
piles appear to contain mainly carbonaceous waste. The compost heaps were very dry
and appeared to have been watered from the top, and the water had not appeared to
percolate through the entire compost heap.

On the day of the visit, the main compost pile near the goat shed was of dimensions
1050mm x 1020mm x 400mm, and was at a temperature of 25.4°C at 10:35 am,
slightly less than the ambient temperature of 27.1°C. This pile was dry, and showed
no remaining signs of recent watering. The water hyacinths which had previously
been added to the compost heap had broken down completely. The second largest
pile, on the lower slopes, had dimensions of approximately 800mm x 800mm x
360mm. Its internal temperature was 28.5°C. Dissolved oxygen level in both piles
was measured as 8mV, which gives a dissolved oxygen level of approximately 4.7%.
The pile on the lower slopes was dry with signs of moisture in its upper surface layer
only. There were traces of dried out fragments of the water hyacinths which had
previously been added to the compost heap, however most of this material had broken
down.

High temperatures in a backyard compost heap are affected by the size of the compost
pile, the ambient weather conditions, the amount of aeration, the particle size or
texture of the feedstocks in the pile, moisture level, carbon to nitrogen ratio and the
composition of the feedstocks used to build the pile. 240 To increase the temperature of
the largest pile near the goat shed, all the material from the second largest pile on the
lower slopes was removed and the two smaller piles were amalgamated into one
larger pile, roughly cubical in shape. The pile was thoroughly wetted while turning,
with several large buckets of water using a metal bucket found on site and water
scooped out from the hyacinth lagoon. By wetting the material while turning it, the
entire pile was wetted, not just the surface layer.

The materials used for the compost appear to be very woody and carbonaceous. It is
suggested that in future some manure be added to the pile to maintain a good C:N
 81

ratio. On 30 June 2001, a sack of mature brush and manure compost from the
Montserrat National Trust’s demonstration units was added to the compost heap, as a
“starter” or “compost accelerator”. This compost should contain a healthy population
of micro-organisms.

On 30 June 2001, the compost pile was covered with some pieces of corrugated iron
held on site, to insulate the pile and prevent it from drying out under the influence of
the high wind speeds. If a sheet of plastic can be procured, this will be even more
effective. The turning was carried out using shovels found on site. It is suggested that
a garden fork be procured to improve the efficacy of compost turning. Due to the
shortage of garden forks in Montserrat, it is suggested that a fork be procured in the
United States.

Figure 4.4 Corrugated iron was used to provide some shelter from the high wind speeds at The Cot. It
is suggested that the pile be kept in its present location where it is less exposed to the wind. (Photo
credit: Helen Meekings, 2001)

In future, when turning the compost, it is suggested that the entire heap be moved
aside. The compost can then be turned and put back in its original place, where it is
sheltered from the wind as much as possible. Two buckets of water (at least) should
be added progressively to the compost while turning.

If John Keller’s compost heap is kept covered, and watered very well while turning, it
can be expected to produce compost more effectively at a faster rate.

These three case studies illustrate the following points:

 82

• Some composting is already being carried out on Montserrat, with a greater or

lesser degree of success.
• In general there is a lack of knowledge of the benefits which could be achieved by
having a cube-shaped pile of sufficient size, turning frequently and maintaining
moisture levels.
• Some gardeners may be happy NOT to turn and water their compost, and just wait
a year before using it, rather than 3 months. The product may undergo anaerobic
decomposition, resulting in volatilisation of nitrogen as ammonia gas and the
formation of organic fatty acids which will not help Montserrat’s acidic soils,
nevertheless a useful product may still result, even if it’s not perfect. (It is possible
for a compost pile to become so anaerobic or ‘sour’ that its use will kill plants
almost instantly241, however by the time it reaches this stage its odour is so
objectionable that it can be easily identified at sour and no-one would want to go
near enough to it to use it).

4.5 TECHNICAL FEASIBILITY OF COMPOSTING BASED ON

EXPERIMENTS

Two demonstration compost bin systems are on display at the Montserrat National
Trust, one containing brush and manure compost, another containing compost made
of weeds only. In addition, the Botanical Gardens manager, Mappie (Philemon
Murraine) has constructed two compost pits using the traditional Montserratian
method of composting. Each of these compost demonstration units was tested at some
stage, to determine its operating temperature and dissolved oxygen levels. A Solvita
test to determine compost maturity was carried out on each of the compost bins/pits.
Moisture content of the brush and manure compost and compost from the first
demonstration pit was also determined. Finally, a self-heating test was carried out on
the brush and manure compost and also on the compost from one of the pits.

Temperature and dissolved oxygen were measured using a temperature meter and
voltmeter. Moisture content was difficult to determine without using some kind of
oven to dry out the compost. The compost was simply left to dry, relying on the
 83

naturally high evaporation rates to remove the moisture. Hence any result from the
moisture content test may under-represent the true moisture content of the material.

The self-heating test was carried out using a thermos flask of 2 litre capacity instead
of a Dewar flask as no Dewar flasks are available on Montserrat and none could be
imported in time for the measurements to be taken. The compost moisture content was
adjusted, and it was placed inside the thermos flask with a thermocouple connected to
the temperature meter. The top of the flask was left open to the atmosphere.
Temperature was logged periodically (subject to the demands of other work) and the
temperature meter’s maximum temperature reached was recorded after several days
when it became apparent that the temperature was no longer going to rise.

Solvita tests were carried out on a number of different samples of compost to

determine the degree of maturity. The Solvita test measures carbon-dioxide
respiration and ammonia content. When a compost is mature it is resistant to further
decomposition and does not contain phytotoxic substances such as ammonia and
organic acids242.

The Solvita test is performed by filling the special-purpose jars up to the line marked
on the label. The Solvita test paddles are then placed in the sealed jar and left for four
hours. After four hours, the colour of the gel-paddles is compared with the colour key
supplied with the kit243.
 84

Figure 4.5 At the beginning of the Solvita test, the jar is filled with compost up to the indicator line and
two gel-coated indicator paddles are added.

Figure 4.6 Indicator used to determine the ammonia evolution from the compost during the test period.

Figure 4.7 Indicator used to determine the CO2 evolution from the compost during the test period.
 85

Figure 4.8 After four hours, the paddles change colour as a result of a chemical reaction between the
NH3 and CO2 gases and the coloured gel indicator. The NH3 and CO2 ratings can thus be determined by
comparing the paddles with the indicator colour chart.

Figure 4.9 The moisture content test was carried out by sieving and weighing a 50g sample of compost,
setting it aside to allow water to evaporate, and weighing it again after several days had elapsed. No
suitable oven was available for accelerated drying.
 86

Figure 4.10 Five attempts were made to calibrate the dissolved oxygen meter correctly, however due to
the lack of bottles of a suitable size in Montserrat it was necessary to cut the plastic bottle used, which
left the dissolved oxygen probe open to the atmosphere.

Figure 4.11 The self-heating test was carried out using a thermos flask as no Dewar flask was available
on Montserrat. Temperature was logged at periodic intervals and the maximum temperature was
recorded
 87

The brush and manure compost Solvita test was carried out on 02/07/01, when the
compost was approximately 11 weeks old. The NH3 rating was found to be 5 and the
CO2 rating was 3, giving a compost maturity index of 3. This indicates that possibly
the C:N ratio is too high or the compost is too acidic. Acidic compost is of concern, as
Montserrat’s volcanic soils are already acidic. A Solvita result of 3 indicates an
“active compost”, with “fresh ingredients, still needs intensive oversight and
244
management” . This is usually associated with a stage of III for the Dewar self-
heating test. Material in this class is comparable to dehydrated manures, and is
suitable for landspreading on fallow soil or farm-row crops and field cultivation, or
hothouse beds and greenhouses.

The Solvita test on the weed compost was also carried out on 02/07/01, when the
compost was approximately 11 weeks old. The NH3 rating was found to be 5 and the
CO2 rating was 6, giving a compost maturity index of 6. This indicates a mature
compost. A Solvita result of 6 indicates an “active compost”, “curing ; aeration
requirement reduced; compost ready for piling; significantly reduced management
requirements”245. Material in this class is comparable to compost-soil blends. It is
suitable for orchards, vineyards and hay crops, or topsoil substitute blends, or general
gardening and top-dressing turf.

For the first compost pit, the Solvita test was carried out on 05/07/01, when the
compost was approximately 7 weeks old. The NH3 rating was found to be 5 and the
CO2 rating was 6, giving a compost maturity index of 6. This indicates a mature
compost, as described above for the weed compost.

After approximately 5 weeks, the second compost pit had an NH3 rating of 5 and the
CO2 rating was 5 also, giving a compost maturity index of 5. This indicates an ideal
curing compost. A Solvita result of 5 indicates an “active compost”, a “compost is
moving past the active phase of decomposition and ready for curing; reduced need for
intensive handling” 246. Material in this class is comparable to organic fertilisers, and
is suitable for farm-row crops and field cultivation, or hothouse beds and greenhouses,
or orchards, vineyards and hay crops, or topsoil substitute blends.
 88

The compost pH was not measured in this series of experiments. If the compost pH is
measured then it is possible to estimate the C:N ratio using the results from the
Solvita ammonia colour test.

The moisture content of the brush and manure compost was found to be 30%, and that
of the compost from the pit was found to be 38%. The self heating test on the brush
and manure compost gave a maximum temperature of 31.2°C, reached after 5 days.
For the pit compost, the maximum temperature for the self-heating test was 35.5°C,
probably reached after 2 days. The temperatures recorded during the self-heating tests
for both the brush and manure compost and the pit compost are illustrated below:

Self Heating Test - Brush and Manure Compost

32
Temperature (oC)

30
28
26
24
22
20
01/07/01

01/07/01

01/07/01

01/07/01

01/07/01

01/07/01

02/07/01
02/07/01

03/07/01

05/07/01

06/07/01

06/07/01

07/07/01

Date and time (h)

Figure 4.12 Temperatures recorded during the self-heating test on the brush and manure compost.

Self Heating Test - Pit Compost

36
Temperature ( o C)

34
32
30
28
26
24
22
20
01

01

01

01

01

01

01

01

01
/

/
07

07

07

07

07

07

07

07

07
/

/
07

08

08

08

08

08

09

10

10

Date and time (h)

Figure 4.13 Temperatures recorded during the self-heating test on the pit compost.
 89

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