c
 



c 

 A program is a precise sequence of steps to solve a particular problem.
Programming a computer simply means telling it what to do.
1. Analytical thinking 2.Critical thinking 3.Attention to details
4. Creative synthesis

 Computers are stupid Comments liberally 

 Paying attention to details be aware of Logical error
! What is the probability that she gets exactly three letter right i.e. three
letters into their correct envelopes?
 No. of Permutation (arrangements) = 3! = 6
Only one out of six arrangements is right. So probability =1/6
"
#$
%? &#$ System software controls the computers
* It communicates with the computer͛s hardware and controls different
aspects of operations.
1) Operating systems 2) Device drivers 3) Utilities
 It manages other programs ''It communicates between devices and computer.
It performs specific tasks 1) Utility Compression 2) Disk defragment
"%? #$A program or a group of programs designed for end users.
e.g. GPS, Inventory control etc.

('))*
'+
(In which we write the code
c (
 Translates source code to machine code. Compiler is
efficient and stops on finding error. Interpreter reads line by line so it is slow and it
executes before error.
',To debug the program%%to correct logical errors.
  It is a tool which checks our program and includes all those routines or
functions which are used in our program while running.
(It loads program into memory and instructs the processor to start execution
from first instruction.
-
Write a program for printing ͞Welcome͟
.( Preprocessor directive Î Instruction to compiler to include contents of a
system file.
å%/0 Library definition file for all input and output streams.

*+ This is function which runs when the program is used.
Not using ͚main͛ Î error void (void)
12 Curly brackets to group together pieces of program
åå Output stream 00 Input stream to input data
åå indication of direction of data
3 All statements in C++ end with it. Not using it will be a syntax error. Only
semicolon ( ; ) will be a null statement.
4 . . . . 5 Thing in double quotes is called ͚Character String͛ It is displayed on screen
as it is.
6 
 data is stored in variable It starts with character, ͚78 not recommended
Variable is name of a location in memory. &9 x=2;
In a program every variable has %Name %Type %Size %Value
'& A variable must have data type Difference: due to size in memory
Reserved words can͛t be used as name of variable
/(syntax: char x=͛a͛;) (4 bytes) /(2 bytes +32768) 
#(4 bytes) (,(size double of float)
'int x;
:x=5; '(
:int x=5;
 z=x+4 (right) x+4=y+4 (wrong) x=x+1
/  + - * / % (modulus)
( Highest () Next * / % Lowest + -
Write programs calculating sum and averages etc.
 ;
<&$(#c main if else while do for
!(=Algebra y=ax2+bx+c In C y = a*x*x + b*x + c

 *Integer division truncates fraction part

*Liberal use of brackets *No expression on L.H.S of assignment operator

,Input: Four digit integer Output: All digits separate

 Change the order of printing digits.
>
'c


<
     #(condition)
   
#  {

# Statement(s);

#(condition) }
{ statement(s); } 
 { statement(s); } å0å å  ? 
         
@ AcB C
D      And && Or ||

E       '

c
   @$
@$/#
#
Entry point '>
c/"
If then Topics: 2.6, 2.8 Figs.: 2.9, 2.10, 2.12, 2.14
Process c/;
Topics: 4.1, 4.2, 4.3, 4.4, 4.6 Figs.: 4.2, 4.3
(#&
*Common programming errors *Good programming practices
9

F
/ A procedure for solving a problem The action to execute and
The order in which these actions execute is called an algorithm.
(c(An artificial and informal language to help programmer develop algorithm
without having to worry about the strict details of C++ language syntax.
c  + The sequence statement "+ Selection statement (if,
if else, switch) -+ Repetition statement (while, for, do while)
 # #Î three types i. Nested if else
ii. Dangling else problem iii. Conditional operator
c((G) It is the C++ only ternary operator i.e. it takes three operands
cout<< (grade>=60G ͞Passed͟  ͞Failed͟) ;
 e.g sum of first 100 integers starting from 1
A/  Syntax while (logical expression) { statement(s); }
Property it executes zero or more times It can become infinite loop
!Calculate the sum of even numbers for a given upper limit of integers.
Another way for even numbers 2*(number/2); remember integer division
Write a program to find out factorial of a given non-negative integer

H
'$/ While loop executes zero or more times do while loop executes
one or more times syntax do { statement(s); } while (condition);
Example: Guessing game Relational operator while(trynum<=maxtries&& ͙͙ )
@ for (initialization condition ; termination condition ; increment condition)
{ statement(s) } Example: Calculate Table
, Always think reuse Don͛t use explicit constants

 counter++; ' counter--;

c(   += -+ *= /= %=
c Write comments at top of program Comments that mean something

I

$&(using if if (x==͛a͛) { cout<<͟Excellent͟; }
If(x==͛b͛) { cout<<͟Good͟ ; }
$/  switch(variable name) { case ͚a͛: statements;
case ͚b͛: statements; case ͚c͛: statements; . . . . }
D3 switch(grade) { case ͚A͛: cout<<͟excellent͟; break;
case ͚B͛: cout<<͟Good͟; break; . . . . }
(# default: cout<<͟Please enter grade from A to F͟;
Switch can only be whole numbers. This is limitation.
c3 while(trynum<=5) { ͙͙ ͙͙. Continue; }
@'C
J
c'
 include͟iostream.h͟
char nm[15]; string variables or 15 characters
const float p=3.14; To declare a constant value
 define p 3.14 identifier constant The define directive
The escape sequence \a alert \b back space \t \n
\r carriage return = to move cursor to beginning of current line \\
\͟ \͛ To print ͞ or ͚ on screen \f feed=to leave one blank page on printer.
/$
 include<iomanip.h> cout<<setw(5)<<62<<setw(5)<<8<<endl;
To specify width of output (will be printed left justified touched to right)
ASSIGNMENT OPERATOR (=) A character can be assigned but string cannot be
assigned to a string variable.
Compound Assignment Statement x=y=16;
Compound Assignment Expression c*=a+b;
Pre/Post Fixing sum=a+b+c--; Î sum=a+b+c; c=c-1;
Nested If if(avg>33) if(avg>50) if(avg>80) grade=͛A͛;
else grade=͛B͛; else grade=͛C͛; else grade=͛F͛;
Conditional operator res=(a>b)?a:b Î if(a>b) res=a; else res=b;
!(a>b)? cout<<͟1st is larger͟:cout<<͟2nd is larger͟;
STRING VARIABLE
*are declared in the same way as a character variable *In fact a string is an array of
character type *The length of string is total number of elements of array
char variable-name [n]; *The last character of every string variable is a null
character, represented by ͚\0͛ *Thus a string variable can store characters one less
than mentioned b/c last character is null. e.g. char city[5]; can store 4
characters. If ony two characters are entered, third is null. *The null character is
automatically added at the end of the data in string.
Initializing string Variable a) char str[10] = ͞Pakistan͟;
b) char str[10] = { ͚P͛ , ͚a͛ , ͚k͛ , ͚i͛ , ͚s͛ , ͚t͛ , ͚a͛ , ͚n͛ , ͚\0͛}; In (a) null character
͚z0͛ is automatically appended at the end of the word ͞Pakistan͟ In(b) fi null
character is not added at the end of string character then the variable of char type is
handled as an array (not as a string)
WRITE A PROGRAM IN C++ TO INITIALOZE A STRING AND THEN TO MOVE THE STRING
TO LINE NO. 22 BY MOVING ONE CHARACTER AT A TIME. ALSO USE THE DELAY
FUNCTION TO SLOW DOWN THE SPEED OF THE MOVING CHARACTER
 inlcude<iostream.h>
 include<conio.h>
 include<dos.h>
main()
{
Char str[15]=͟Pakistan͟;
Int I,l,c;
clrscr();
gotoxy(32,1);
cout<<str;
for(i=0 ; str[;]!͛\0͛ ; i++)
{
for(l=1 ; l<=22 ; l++)
{
gotoxy(i+32,l);
cout<<str[i];
delay(50);
gotoxy(i+32,l);
cout<<͟ ͞;
}
gotoxy(i+32,l);
cout<<str[i];
}
}
 
 '
 include<iostream.h>
 include<conio.h>
Main()
{
clrscr();
int a,b;
int *x,*y;
x=&a;
y=&b;
cout<<͟Memory address of a is ͞<<&a;
cout<<͟Memory address of b is ͞<<&b;
cout<<͟Value stored in memory address of x ͞<<*x;
cout<<͟Value stored in memory address of y ͞<<*y;
}

CALL BY REFERENCE
data type name (data type & variable)
{
......;
}



They contain variable location.
Variable used to hold address of another variable.
int* p; float* rep;
Pointer having value 0 or NULL means it points to nothing.
Symbolic constant  is defined in <iostream.h>


1) AND (&) operator 2) * operator
Unary operator returns memory address of operand
Int y=5;
int *yptr;
yptr = &y;
cout<<*yptr;
*yptr=9; // assigns 9 to y
* and & are inverses of each other.

cB 
 A 'c 

int M[3][3];

cout<<M[j][i]; // Just do transpose simply by printing (inside nested for loops)

OR
for (i=0 ; i<=2 ; i++)
for (j=0 ; j<=i ; j++)
{
C = M[i][j];
M[i][j] = M[j][i];
M[j][i] = c;
}


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c 

for (i=0 ; i<=2 ; i++)
for(j=0 ; j<=2 ; j++)
for (l=0 ; l<=2 ; l++)
c[i][i] = c[i][j] + a[i][l]*b[l][j];

'c  
 @  C (Easy Technique for 2-D Array)
Int c[3][3] = { {0} , {0} }
cB @ c 6

for (l=0 ; l<=2 ; l++)
{
m = a[l][l];
for(k=0 ; k<=3 ; k++)
{
a[l][k] = a[l][k] / m;
}
for(i=l+1 ; i<=2 ; i++) // $(i=0 ; i<=l-1 ; i++)
{
m = a[i][l];
for (j=0 ; j<=3 ; j++)
{
a[i][j] = a[i][j] ʹ m*a[l][j];
}
}
}