INDEX

CHAPTER TOPIC PAGE NO

1 INTRODUCTION 04
2 BASIC NEEDS FOR 05-10
SURVIVAL
3 QUALITIES OF SURVIVOUR 11-12
4 WATER 13-20
5 FOOD 21-42
6 CAMP CRAFT 43-48
7 GROUND TO AIR SIGNAL 49-51
8 HOW TO FIND DIRECTION 52-54
9 DANGEROUS CREATURES 55-63
10 SEA SURVIVAL 64-75
11 MOUNTAIN SURVIVAL 76-79
12 DESERT SURVIVAL 80-83
13 SNOW SURVIVAL 84-93
 CHAPTER-1
SURVIVAL
1. Survival: -

It is the ability of an individual or group to sustain in an unfamiliar

situation with the help of available resources. Survival is the art of staying alive.
Any equipment you have must be considered as bonus.

It’s crucial that we are prepared for any eventuality and survival training is the
best insurance policy you can take out. Just by following the basic technique
and knowing what to do in an emergency will make the world a safer place.

You could be isolated anywhere in the world from the arctic ice to a desert;
from tropical rain forest to the Open Ocean, and the problem of survival are the
same of both soldier and civilian. The difference lies in that soldiers may need
to hide their presence. Whereas civilian will want to attract attention to affect
their rescue.

This basic principal from an essential pyramid of leaving for the survivor

(a) KIT
(b) KNOWLEDGE
(c) WILL TO LIVE

Although initially it may take great physical afford to escape from a dangerous
situation survival is a mental exercise. After the excitement of the incident and the
rush of adrenalin have settled it takes great mental resolve to carry on. What keeps
us going is the basic instinct, which is best referred to as the will to live. This is the
firm foundation that builds all of our training and tries to nourish and increase. It is
easy seeing how physically fit we are but very difficult to know how mentally fit
we are.

This basic instinct is getting weaker as we get more civilized so it’s important to
practice our skill, and we prepare for any eventuality.
 CHAPTER-2
BASIC NEEDS FOR SURVIVAL

1. The will to live: -

The will to live (WTL) means never giving in, regardless of the situation.
It’s very reassuring to know that there is nothing on this earth that we cannot deal
with, and there is no place on earth where we cannot survive as long as we follow
the basic principles, prepare yourselves, and apply (WTL), we will come through.
Some people have a stronger will then others, but we can all improve. Some people
turn to religion in times of stress, other think of loved ones. Fear of failure or
letting down comrades, all have to strengthen our (WTL). Reading of past exploits
of survival will also help.

You can have all the knowledge and kit in the world but without the will to live u
can still in India.

2. ESSENTIAL FOR SURVIVAL

The main elements of survival are food, fire, shelter, water, navigation and
medicine. To put these in order of priority we use the acronym PLAN. No matter
where you are in the world this will never change be it the arctic, desert, jungle, sea
or seashore.

P-for protection

You must ensure that you are protected from further danger, i.e. impending
avalanche, forest fire or exploding fuel. Always stay on the scene of the incident as
long as it is safe to do so and then make sure that you are protected from the
elements. This means making a shelter and often lighting a fire. There are several
reasons why you should always stay at the scene:

(a) You can utilize the wreckage for the shelter, signaling etc

(b) Its bigger signature on the ground, making it easier to find.

(c) By staying where you are you are conserving the energy.
L-for location

The next step after building the shelter is to put out emergency signals. You must
draw attention to your position. Do it as soon as possible to help the rescuers.

A-for acquisition

While waiting to be rescued, look for water and food to help supplement your
emergency supplies

N-for navigation

Good navigation will keep you on route and will often avert a survival situation.
But if you find yourself stranded, always stay where you are.

3. SURVIVAL KIT

(a) MATCHES: waterproof matches are useful but bulkier than ordinary
non-safety, strike anywhere matches, which can be made’ shower-proof’ by
dipping the heads in melted candle fat.

(b) CANDLE: Invaluable for starting a fire as well as a light source.

(c) FLINT: Flints will work when wet and they will go on striking long after
you run out of matches. Invest in a processed flint with a saw striker.
(d) MAGNIFYING GLASS: Can start a fire from direct sunshine and is
useful for searching for splinters and strings.

(e) NEEDLES AND THREAD: Several needles, including at least one with
a very large eye that can be threaded with sinew and coarse threads.

(f) FISH HOOK AND LINE: helpful in catching fish and birds. Remember
that a small hook will catch both large and small fish but a large hook will
only catch big ones.
(g) COMPASS: A luminous button compass-but make sure you know how
to read it, as some small compass can be confusing. A liquid-filled type is
best, but checks that it does not leak, has no bubbles in it and is fully
serviceable

(h) BETA LIGHT: A light-emitting crystal, only the size of a small coin but
ideal for reading a map at night and a useful fishing lure-expensive but just
about everlasting.

(j) SNARE WIRE: Preferably brass wire (2-3ft) should do. Save for snares,
but could solve many survival problems.

(k) FLEXIBLE SAW: these usually come with large rings at the ends as
handles. Flexible saws can be used to cut even quite large trees.
(l) MEDICAL KIT: what you include depends upon your own skill in using
it. Should contain analgesic, intestinal sedative, antibiotic, antihistamine,
water sterilizing tablet, antis-malaria tablets, potassium permanganate.

(m) SURGICAL BLADES: It can be used for many purposes.

(n) BUTTERFLY SUTURES: use to hold the edges of wounds together.

(p) PLASTERS: Assorted sizes, preferably waterproof, for minor abrasions

and keeping cut clean. They can be cut and used as butterfly sutures.
 (q) CONDOM: This makes a good water-bag—holding 1 litre.

4. PERSONAL PROTECTION:-

(a) CLOTHING
(b)SHELTER
(c)FIRE

5. SUSTENANCE:-

(a) WATER
(b) FOOD
(c) HEALTH AND HYGINE

6. FACING STRESS:

The survival situation will put you under pressure, both physical and mental. You
will have to overcome some or all of the following stresses:

(a) Fear and anxiety

(b) Pain, illness and injury

(c) Cold and/or heat

(d) Thirst, hunger and fatigue

(e) Boredom

(f) Loneliness and isolation

 CHAPTER-3
SURVIVOUR QUALITIES

1. These are the qualities which a survivor must pursue:

(a) Will to survive

(b) Knowledge of equipment
(c) Environment condition
(d) Knowledge of climate
(e) Knowledge of terrain
(f) Physically tough
(g) Mentally agile and tough
(h) Will to live
(j) Knowledge about map over the world
(k) Knowledge of the customs of the enemy countries
(l) Prepared for unexpected
(m) Always have contingency plan

2. DO’S AND DON’TS

(a) Just rest. Avoid exertion

(b) Don’t smoke.
(c) Keep cool. Stay in shade. If there is none erect a cover to provide it.
(d) Do not lie on hot ground or heated surfaces.
(e) Don’t eat, or eat as little as possible. If there is no water available fluid
will be taken from the vital organs to digest food, further increasing
dehydration?
(f) Never drink alcohol. This also takes fluid from vital organs to break it
down.
(g) Don’t talk-and breathe through the nose, not the mouth.
(h) Don’t run. Walk slowly to conserve energy.
(j) Don’t eat any plant with milky sap, unless positively identified as
safe.
(k) Avoid red plants. Unless positively identified.
(l) Avoid fruit which is divided into five segments.
(m) Avoid grass and other plants with tiny barbs on their stems and leaves.
(n) Avoid old or witted leaves. These leaves of some plants and trees
develop deadly hydrocyanic acid.
(p) Any plant or roots eaten by the monkeys is not always safe for us also,
they just give some indication that it is edible. Always use testing method.
 CHAPTER-4
WATER

Water is essential to life. All life depends upon it and all living things contain it.
The average person can survive only for three days without water. The human
body contains 75% of water. It is the coolant that keeps the body at an even
temperature; it is needed to keep the kidneys functioning to eliminate wastes. The
average person looses 3-4 litres of water every day. Even someone resting in shade
looses about 1 litre.

1. HOW TO FIND WATER

The first place to look is in valley bottom, where water naturally drains. If there is
no obvious stream or pool, look for patches of green vegetation and try digging
there, water may be just below the surface. In mountains look for water in crevices.

In regions where it is very hot during the day and cold during night heavy dew
can be expected. When it condenses on metal objects it can be sponged or licked
off. You can use clothing to soak up water and then wring it out.

2. ANIMALS AS SIGN OF WATER

(a) MAMALS: Most animals require water regularly. Grazing animals are usually
never far from water. Though some kinds travel thousands of miles to avoid the
dry season-as they need to drink at dawn and dusk. Converging game trails always
lead to water; follow them downhill.

(b) BIRDS: Grain eaters, such as finches and pigeons, are never far from water.
They drink at dawn and dusk. When they fly straight and low they are heading for
water. When returning from water they are loaded with it and fly from tree to tree,
resting frequently. Plot there direction and water can be found.

Water birds can travel long distances without stopping to feed or drink so do not
necessarily indicate water nearby.hawks,eagles and other birds of prey also get
liquids from there victims so cannot be taken as assign of local water.

(c) REPTILES: Not an indicator of water. They collect dew and get moisture from
prey, so can go a long time without.
(d) INSECTS: Good indicators, especially bees: they fly at most 6.5km from there
nest or hives. But have no regular watering times. Ants are dependent on water. A
column of arts marching up a tree is going to a small reservoir of trapped water.
Such reservoirs are even in arid areas. Most flies keep with in 90 metres of water.

(e) HUMAN TRACKS: Will usually lead to a well, bore hole or soak. It may be
covered over with scrub or rocks to reduce evaporation.

3. CONDENSATION

Tree and plant roots draw moisture from the ground, but a tree may take it from a
water table (15mt) or below, too deep to dig down to reach. Evaporation from the
leaves will produce condensation in the bag.

Choose healthy vegetation and bushy branches. Tie the heavily leafy stem with
a bag by keeping the mouth of the bag at the top with a corner hanging low to
collect condensed evaporation.

Placing a polythene tent over any vegetation will collect moisture by

evaporation which will condense on the plastic as it cools. Suspend the tent from
the apex or support with a padded stick.

Even cut vegetation will produce some condensation as it warm up when placed
in a large plastic bag. Keep the foliage off the bottom with stones so that water
collects below it and keep the foliage from touching the plastic.

4. SOLAR STILL

Dig a hole in the ground approximately 90cm and 45cm deep. Place a collecting
can in the centre, then cover the hole with a sheet of plastic formed into a cone by
keeping stone over the plastic. The suns heat raises the temperature of the air and
the soil, hence vapour is produced. As the air becomes saturated, water condenses
on the under side of the plastic, due to the cone shape water drops into the cone.
This is especially effective in desert and else where when it is hot during the day
and cold in the night. This kind of still collects at least half litre of water over 24
hours period.
5. WATER FROM ICE AND SNOW

Always melt ice rather than snow; it produces a greater volume of water
faster for less heat, twice as much for half the heat. If snow is to be heated, place a
little in the pot and heating it and gradually adding more and more. Never put a
huge amount of ice together into the pot for melting.

6. WATER FROM SEA ICE

Sea ice is salt. No use for drinking. Until it is aged. The more recently
frozen, the saltier it will be. New sea ice is rough on contour and milky-white in
colour.old ice is bluish and has rounded edges, caused by weathering.

Good water can be obtained from blue ice-the bluer and smoother the better.
But beware of even old ice that has been exposed to salt spray.

7. WATER FROM PLANTS

(a) Water collectors:

Cup-shaped plants and cavities between the leaves of bromeliads (many of which
are parasitic on the branches of tropical trees) often collect a reservoir of water.
Bamboo often holds water in its hollow joints. Old and yellow stems are more
likely to be water bearing. Shake them-if you can hear water slurping around cut a
notch at the bottom of each joint and tip the water out.

(b) Vines:
Vines with rough bark and shoots about 5cm thick can be a useful source of water.
But you must learn by experience which are the water bearing vines, because not
all have drinkable water and some have poisonous sap.

To obtain water from a vine select a particular stem and trace it upward. Reach as
high as possible and cut a deep notch in the stem. Cut off the same stem close to
the ground and let the water to drip from it into your mouth or into a container.
When it ceases to drip cut a section from the bottom and go on repeating first as
this will cause the liquid to run up the vine through capillary action.

(c) Roots:

It is not easy to find some of the most important roots unless you have been shown
by someone with experience

(d) Palms:
The buri, coconut and Nipa palms all contain a surgery fluid which is very
drinkable. To start it flowing bend a flowering stalk downwards and cut off its tip.
If a thin slice is cut off the stalk every 12 hours the flow will be renewed, make it
possible to collect up to a quart each day.

Coconut milk has considerable water content, but from ripe nuts it is a powerful
laxative. Drinking too much would make you lose more fluid.

(e) Cacti:

Both the fruit and bodies of cacti store water, but not all cacti produce liquid safe
to drink-the saquarro, the giant multifingered cactus of Arizona, is very poisonous.
Take care to avoid contact with cactus spines, they can be very difficult to remove,
especially the very fine hair-like ones, and cause festering sores if they stay in skin.

The best method is to cut off the top and chop out pieces from the inside to suck, or
to smash the pulp within the plant and scoop out the watery sap, which varies from
tasteless in some plants to bitter in others. An average sized, 100 cm barrel cactus
will yield about 1 litre of milky juice and this is the exception to the rule to avoid
milky-sapped plants.

8. WATER FROM ANIMALS

Animal eyes contain water which can be extracted by sucking them. All fish
contain a drinkable fluid. Large fish, in particular, has a reservoir of fresh water
along the spine. Tap it by gutting the fish and, keeping the fish flat, remove the
backbone, being careful not to spill the liquid, and then drink it.

If you need water that badly you should be careful not to suck up the other fish
juices in the flesh, for they are rich in protein and will use up water in digestion.

Desert animals can also be a source of moisture. In times of drought in

northwestern Australia, aborigines dig in dry clay pans for the desert frogs that
burrow in the clay to keep cool and survive. They store water in their bodies and it
can be squeezed out of them.

CHAPTER-5
FOOD
The body needs food to supply heat and energy and to provide the materials with
which it can build new tissues, whether for growth, repair or reproduction. A
healthy boy can survive for a time on reserves stored it in tissues, but lack of food
makes it increasingly difficult to keep warm, to recover after hard work or injury
and to fight off diseases. You need to have some understanding of your body’s
nutritional needs and how you can meet them. In most circumstances plant foods
will be the most readily available-but you need to know which plant to avoid.
colour illustration provide a miniature field guide to some of the most useful
plants.

Almost any animal can provide food and you must get used to eating unusual ones,
such as worms and insects, which are easily obtained. Meat needs preparation to
make it convenient to handle and safe to cook. Learn how to preserve it when there
is a surplus.

1. FOOD PLANTS

There are few places in the world where you will be far from some kind of
vegetation-bush, vine, creeper, flower, grass or lichen, which can be eaten to
provide nourishment. There are 10000 edible wild plants. The only skill required in
making use of them knowing which is which and where to find them and which
one is safe.
Do not assume that because birds, mammals or insects have eaten a plant that is
edible by humans. Monkeys are some indication, but no guarantee, that plants are
suitable for human consumption.

2. Testing new plants:

Always adopt the following procedure when trying out potential new food
plants, only one person testing each plant. Never take short cuts-complete the
whole test. If in any doubt, do not eat the plant. Should stomach trouble occur,
relief can be gained by drinking lot of hot water; do not eat again until the pain
goes. If it is severe, induce vomiting by tickling the back of the throat. Charcoal is
a useful emetic. Swallowing some will induce vomiting and the charcoal may also
absorb the poison. White wood ash mixed to a plastic with water will relieve
stomach pain.

(a) Inspect:

Try to identify. Ensure that plant is not slimy or worm-eaten. It will be past
its best, with little food value other than the grubs or worms upon it. Some
plants, when old, change their chemical content and become toxic.

(b) Smell:

Crush a small portion. If it smells of bitter almonds or peaches-DISCARD.

(c) Skin irritation:

Rub slightly or squeeze some of the juice onto a tender part of the body
(under the arm under the armpit and elbow, for instance).if any discomfort,
rash or swelling is experienced-DISCARD, reject in future.

(d) Lips, Tongue, Mouth:

If there is no irritation to the skin proceed in the following stages, going on

to the next only after waiting few seconds to check that there is no
unpleasant reaction.

(i) Place a small portion on the lips

 (ii) Place a small portion in the corner of the mouth.

(iii) Place a small portion on the tip of tongue.

(iv) Place a small portion under the tongue.

(v) Chew a small portion.

In all cases, if any discomfort is felt, such as soreness to throat, irritation or

stringing or burning sensation-DISCARD, reject in future.

(e) Swallow:

Swallow a small amount and wait for five hours. During this period eat or
drink nothing else.

(f) Eating:

If no reaction such as soreness to the mouth, repeated

Belching, nausea, sickness, stomach pains, griping pains in the lower

abdomen or any other distressing symptoms are experienced, you may
consider the plant safe.

3. Gathering plants:

It is easy to pick plants here and there, but is better and safer to gather them
systematically.

(a) Leaves and stem:

Leaves are very rich in vitamins and minerals. Together with young shoots
they are the survivor’s easiest source of food. Most will taste better cooked
but will destroy vitamins they contain if overcooked.

(b) Roots and tubers:

Roots and tubers are invaluable survival food. They are full of nutrition,
particularly starch. All roots should be thoroughly cooked if any doubt as to
their identity.

(c) Fruit and nuts:

Fruits and nuts are one of the survivor’s most important foods. Many will be
familiar in their cultivated farms or from traditional hedgerow harvest. Some
are abundant, even on the tundra of the far north.
(d) Seeds and grains:

Are of great use when stranded.

(e) Fungi:

Fungi make good eating, but must be positively identified as of an edible

kind. There is no room of error. Wild fungi are a great delicacy-if you know
which one to pick.

(g) Roots and tubers:

(i) Bistorts or knotweeds

(ii) Spring beauties

(iii) Silverweed

(iv) Sweet vetch or liquorices root

(v) Wild parsnips

 (vi) Comfrey

(vii). Salsify or oyster plant

(viii). Woolly lousewort

h) Fruits:

(i) Barberry
(ii) Wild roses

(iii) Blackberries

(iv) Dewberries

(v) Wild strawberries

(vi) Hawthorns

(vii) Crab apples

(viii) Wild cherries

(ix) Blackthorn or sloe

 (x) Wild mulberries

(xi) Wild grapes

j) Nuts:

i) Pines
ii) Walnuts

iii) Butter nut

iv) Pecan

v) Hazels

vi) Sweet chestnuts

 vii) Beeches

viii) Oaks

ix) Pistachios

x) Almonds

4. ANIMALS FOR FOOD

 All animals can be a source of nourishment. A few, including worms and
insects, can be collected with little skill, but most must be trapped or hunted,
demanding both knowledge and expertise of animals and of methods.

The more you know of animals the better, but general natural history
knowledge must be used to help you find out more by observation in the wild.
There is no one way to do things-you must learn by trial and error.

The best animals for flavour and amount of meat are mature females. The
younger the animal, the more lean the meat. An adult male is at his fattest just
before the mating season. The older the animal the more fat it has and the tougher
the meat becomes.

5. Finding game

There are very few places on earth where there are no wild animals, but
sometimes the signs of the presence are far from the obvious. If you can recognize
and read the signs that animals leave, and identify the animal, you will know what
methods to adopt in hunting and trapping your prey.

Most mammals are mainly on the move at the first and last light. Only the
larger and more powerful venture out during the day.

(a) Tracks and signs

Most animals are creature of habit and regular routes between their watering
spots, feeding places and homes. Look out for the signs of these trails.
Tracks will be more obvious on wet ground, snow and damp sand, and other
signs are more noticeable in heavy vegetation. The size of the impression
 left is in proportion to that of the animal. The clearer the track the more
likely it is to be recent.

In the early morning tracks can be checked by looking at them from ground
level. If dew and spider’s webs have been disturbed, and the tracks are, at
most, a few hours old. Marks on trees and logs, feeding signs and discarded
food are other useful indications.

6. Mammals:

(a) Wildcats

(b) Wild dogs

(c) Bears

(d) Otters
(e) Wolverines

(f) Badgers

(g) monkeys/apes

(h) Bats
(j) Wild pigs

(k) Cattle

(l) Wild sheep/goats

(m) deer/antelopes

(n) Camels

(p) rabbit/hares

(q) Squirrels
 (r) Kangaroos

7. Reptiles:

(a) Crocodiles

(b) Lizards
(c) turtles/tortoises

(d) Snakes

(e) Amphibians
8. Insects:

(a) Termites

(b) Bees and wasps

(c) Hornets

(d) Ants
 (e) grass-hoppers

9. Snail/worms:

(a) Snail

(b) Slugs
(c) Worms
 CHAPTER-6
CAMP CRAFT

Selecting where to camp and knowing how to make a good shelter are essential
skills. A wide range of shelter construction methods, using available materials, are
described, from the simplest windbreak to dwellings for long term occupation.

You will need to make fire and to choose the right type of fire construction.

Fires for both general warmth and for cooking purposes are detailed.

1. SHELTER AND MAKING CAMP

Shelter is necessary to give shade, to repel wind and rain and to keep in
warmth. Sleep and adequate rest are essential and the time and effort you put into
making your shelter comfortable will make them easier to get.

2. Bad places to camp

(a) Hilltops exposed to wind (move down and look for shelter on the lee
side)

(b) Valley bottoms and deep hallows-could be damp and, especially when
the sky is clear, more liable to frost at night.

(c) Hillside terraces where the ground holds moisture.

(d) Spurs which lead down to water, which are often routes to animals
watering places.
3. Types of shelter

(a) Hasty shelter:

If no materials are available for constructing a shelter make use of any cover
and protection that is available: Cliff overhangs, gradients and so forth,
which will help shield you from wind or rain. Incorporate natural
windbreaks in quickly constructed shelters. In completely open plains, sit
with your back to the wind and pile any equipment behind you as a
windbreak

(b) Bough shelter:

Make use of branches that sweep down to the ground or bought that have
partly broken fro tree to give basic protection from the wind-but make sure
that they are not so broken that they could come down on your head. Weave
in other twigs to make the cover denser. Conifers are more suited to this
technique than broad-leaved trees, as they require less weaving-in to keep
out rain.
(c) Root shelter:

The spreading roots and trapped earth at the base of a fallen tree make a
good wind and storm barrier, if they are at the right angle to the wind. Filling
in the sides between the extended roots will usually make the shelter much
more effective, and providing a good support for building a more elaborate
shelter from other materials.

(d) Use a natural hollow:

Even a shallow depression in the ground will provide some protection from
wind and can reduce the effort in constructing a shelter. However, take
measures to deflect the downhill flow of water around it, especially if it is a
hollow on a slope, or you could find yourself lying in a pool.

Make a roof to keep the rain off and the warmth in. a few strong branches
placed across the hollow can support a light log laid over them, against
which shorter boughs and sticks can be stacked to give pitch to the roof and
so allow water to run off.

(e) Fallen trunks:

A log or fallen tree trunk makes a useful windbreak on its own, if it is at the
right angle to the wind. With a small trunk, scoop out a hollow in the ground
on the leeward side.

A log also makes an excellent support for a lean to roof of boughs.

(f) Sapling shelter:

If suitable sapling growth is available, select two lines of saplings, clear the
ground between them of any obstruction and lash their tops together to form
a support frame for sheeting. Weight down the bottom edges of the sheeting
with rocks or timber.

You can make similar shelter from pliable branches driven into the ground.

(g) Shelter sheet:

With a waterproof poncho, groundsheet or a piece of plastic sheeting or
canvas, you can quickly and easily make a number of different shelters
which will suffice until you can build something more efficient. make use of
natural shelter(a) make a triangular shelter with the apex pointing into the
wind.(b) stake or weigh down edges. If it is long enough, curl the sheeting
below you-running downhill so that it keeps out surface water. (c) Use dry
or bracken as bedding. Do not lie on cold or damp ground.

(h) Parachute tepee:

A parachute, suspended by its centre, makes an instant tepee. Peg out the
bottom edge.

(j) Stick walls and screens:

It is easy to built walls by pilling sticks between uprights driven into the
ground and (if possible) tied at the top. Caulk them well to keep out wind
and rain. These are ideal for making one side of a shelter, for blocking a
shelter’s opening or for a heat reflector behind a fire. If large rocks are not
available use this method to dam a stream.
 CHAPTER-7
GROUND TO AIR SIGNAL

These letters are internationally recognized by emergency signals. The signal bar
“I” is the most important and easiest to make. A pilot will risk a great deal to
answer such an emergency. Make them as large as possible using color contrast or
shadow. A recommended size is 10 meter long and 3 meter wide for each symbol,
with 3 meter between symbols.

Lay or make these panel codes out in open, avoid steep gullies or ravines and
do not make them on reverse slopes.

Serious injury

Need medical supply

Need food and water

 Negative (no)

Affirmative (yes)

All is well

Unable to move on

Indicate direction to proceed

1. How to attract attraction if stranded:

(a) Fire and smoke

(b) Transmitters

(c) Noise

(d) Waving clothes

(e)Fire signals

(f) Luminous cone fires

(g) Smoke indicators

(h) Glass reflector

(j) Body signals

(k) Flares
 CHAPTER-8
How to find direction

1. Shadow stick method 1

On a patch of flat, clear ground place a metre-long (3 ft) stick as upright as

possible. Note where its shadow falls and mark the tip with a pebble or a stick.
Wait at least 15 minutes and mark the new shadow tip. Join the two and you have
the direction of east and west. North-south will be at the right angles to the line.
This method works at any time of the day where there is sunshine and at any
latitude. Use it for spot checks as you proceed.

2. Shadow stick method 2

Another, more accurate, method-if you have the time-is to mark the first shadow
tip in the morning. Draw a clean arc at exactly this distance from the stick, using
the stick as a centre point. As midday approaches the shadow will shrink and
move. In the afternoon, as the shadow lengthens again, mark the exact spot where
it touches the arc. Join the two points to give east and west- west is the morning
mark.

3. Direction by watch

(a) Northern hemisphere

Hold the watch horizontal. Point the hour hand at the sun. Bisect the angle
between the hour hand and the 12 mark to give a north-south line.
 (b) Southern hemisphere

Hold the watch horizontal. Point 12 towards the sun. A mid-point between
12 and the hour hand will give you the north-south line.

4. Improvised compass

A piece of ferrous metal wire-a sewing needle is ideal-stocked repeatedly in one

direction against silk will become magnetized and can be suspended so that it
points north. The magnetism will not be strong and will need regular topping up.

Suspend the needle in a loop of thread, so that it does not affect the balance.
Any kinks in or twisting of the thread must be avoided.

Stroking with a magnet, should you have one, will be much more efficient than
using silk-stroke the metal smoothly from one end to the other in one direction
only

5. Floating needle

A suspended needle will be easier to handle on the move but in camp or when
making a halt a better method is to lay the needle on a piece of paper, bark or grass
and float it on the surface of water.

6. Using electricity

If you have a power source of two volts or more (a small dry battery, for instance)
the current can be used to magnetize the metal. You will also need a short length of
fire, preferably insulated.

Coil the insulated wire around the needle. If it has no ready-made insulation wraps
a few layers of paper or a piece of card board around the needle first. Attach the
ends of the wire to the terminals of the battery for five minutes.

7. Razor blade compass

A thin flat razor blade can also be used as a compass needle because it is made of
two metals bonded together. It can be magnetized simply by stropping with care
against the palm of the hand. Suspend it.
8. Plant pointers

(a) North Pole plant : This plant grows in South Africa, leans towards
the north to gain full advantage of the sun.

(b) Compass plant : This plant grows in North America. Directs its
leave in a north-south alignment. Its profile from east or west is quite
different from that of north or south.

CHAPTER-9
 Dangerous creatures

1. The insects and other creatures below are not a major problem for survivors
if sensible precautions are taken-but can easily become one if not treated with
respect.

(a) Scorpion

(b) Recluse or fiddle back spider

(c) Black widow or hourglass spiders

(d) Funnel webs

(e) Tarantulas

(f) Centipedes and millipedes

(g) Hornets

(h) Ticks
 (j) Leeches

(k) Vampire bats

2. Poisonous snakes

(a) Rattlesnakes
(b) Copperhead

(c) Cottonmouth or water moccasin

(d) Tropical rattle snake

(e) Fer de lance

(f) Bushmaster

(g) Coral snakes

(h) Adder (viper berus)

(j) Puff adder

(k) saw-scaled viper

(l) Russell’s viper

(m) Malay pit viper or moccasin cobras

(n) Mambas

(o) Boom slang

(p) Kraits
3. Spitting snakes

A few cobras, including the ringhals of southern Africa, spit poison as well as bite.
This is a purely defensive measure and is not dangerous unless the poison reaches
an open cut or the eyes. If it does, wash out immediately with water, in an
emergency, with urine.

(a) Death adder

(b) Australian black snake

(c) Australian brown snake

(d) Tiger snake

(e) Taipan

(f) Sea snake

4. Dangerous sea creatures

These fishes and sea creatures are dangerous. Most are either poisonous to touch or
have poisonous flesh.

(a) Electric eels

(b) Piranhas

(c) Stingrays

(d) Rabbitfish or spine feet

e) Tangs or surgeon fishes

(f) Venomous toad fish

(g) Scorpion fishes or zebra fishes

(h) Stone fishes

CHAPTER-10
 SEA SURVIVAL

Conditions of survival at sea are perhaps worse than those of any other
environment and make the sternest demands. Planes and boats carry survival
equipment, but even getting into a dinghy in a heavy sea can be difficult.

Once any emergency supplies of food and water run out, sources are not
reliable-so any possibilities of obtaining food from the sea and collect drinking
water must be exploited to conserve supplies as long as possible.

Not all fish are edible and some are even dangerous to handle. Shark dangers
are often exaggerated, but should not be ignored. Appropriate action is needed to
avoid or deter them. A difficult coast can make a final landfall hazardous, so heed
the advice on lessening the risks.

1. Basic survival factors

(a) Protection: immediate steps must be taken by the survivor to protect

himself from the adverse effects of his environment.i.e water, the chilling
effect of the wind on wet clothing, and extremes of temperature.

(b) Location: having protected himself from wind and weather, the survivor
must check and prepare, all signaling gear including pyrotechnics and
heliograph and have them ready for use.
 (c) Water: water is of much importance to the survivor than food. Rationing
must be instituted at once. Take stock of emergency supplies of water and
keep them for an emergency.

(d) Food: check on rations available, remembering that food should not to be
taken, unless there is lot of water available for drinking as it is necessary for
metabolism.

2. Immediate actions after ditching

(a) Release and board the dinghy.

(b) Roll call

(c) Paddle clear and salvage equipment

(d) Stream sea drogue and service dinghy

(e) Administer first aid

3. Precautions against weather

(a) Cold climate

(b) Hot climate

4. Protection of health

(a) Seasickness

(b) Immersion

(c) Salt water sores

(d) Sore eyes

(e) Parched lips and cracked skin

 (f) Constipation or difficult urination

(g) frost-bite

5. Water

The sources of water in your emergency packs and survival kits are made up of
sea-water desalting apparatus, and tins, bottles or cushions containing fresh water.
A solar still will also be included where possible. The desalting apparatus and still
should be used forst, while you still have the mental ability and patience to cope up
with them. For that water rationing is must. While no hard and fast rule can be laid
down for rationing of water it depends on the individual.

6. Main sources of water

(a) Rain water

(b) Icebergs

(c) Old sea ice

(d) Immersion of the body

(e) Fish juices

7. Water rules

(a) Reduce water loss from the skin.

(b) Sleep and rest.

(c) Prevent seasickness if possible.

(d) Do not drink sea water.

(e) Do not drink urine.

(f) Do not drink alcohol

 (g) Don’t smoke

(h) Do not eat unless you have adequate water for digestion.

(j) To allay thirst and to keep the mouth moist by increasing saliva, it may
found beneficial to suck on a piece of cloth or a button.

8. FOOD

In the adverse conditions of survival at sea, it is vital to realize that the amount of
the water ration will determine how much food may be eaten and of what it should
consist, for the body requires water for digestion of food and the elimination of
waste products. Food can be divided into two main categories,

so far as the balance between food and water is concerned.

(a) Carbohydrate foods

(b) Protein foods

9. Food and water rules

(a) The quantity of the food and water rations must be varied in direct
proportion to each other. If you have plenty of water you can increase the
food ration, but as the water ration decreases the food ration must be
decreased.

(b) Protein food, such as any raw fish, bird or seaweed, will require more
water than emergency rations.

(c) Live off natural foods if your rations of water permit, and save your
emergency rations for the real emergency when your water supply is getting
low.
10. Fishing-useful hints

(a) Fish represents your largest possible source of natural food and the great
majority of fish are edible. in the tropics, a rough and ready rule is that the
fish of the open sea out of sight of land, are safe to eat, where as some of the
fish caught in the lagoons may not only be poisonous to eat but poisonous to
handle.

(b) Do not handle the fish line with bare hands or fasten it to the dinghy.
Use gloves or cloth when handling fish.

(c) Having caught a fish, you can cut its skin or flesh into strips with which
to bait the hooks or spinners.

(d) Be very careful when fishing in or near large shoals, as large fish may be
feeding for them.

(e) A light at night attracts fish.

(f) Surplus fish can be cut into strips and dried for future use as food.

(g) A dinghy often attracts small fish, which makes excellent bait.

(h) A piece of cloth or wool especially red in colour is a good substitute for
bait.

11. Poisonous fish

Most fishes are edible, palatable and wholesome. however, there are few with
flesh, that is poisonous and others with a poisonous and other with poisonous
spines, which are dangerous to handle.

Most of the fish with poisonous flesh are to be found in tropical waters.
Their chief characteristic is that they lack ordinary scales and instead have either
naked skin or are encased in a bony box-like covering or are covered with bristles
spiny scales strong sharp thorns or spines. Others puff up like a balloon on being
taken out of the water. If you are ashore, remember that cooking does not destroy
the poisonous alkaloids fish. Finally, never eat a fish that has a slimy gills, sunken
eyes, flabby flesh or skin or unpleasant odour.if on pressing the thumb against the
fish it remains deeply dented, the fish is probably not in state of being eaten. Some
of the poisonous fishes are:

(a) Scorpion fish

(b) Porcupines fish

(c) Toad fish

 (d) Stone fish

(e) File fish

(f) Zebra fish

12. Dangerous fish

(a) Sharks
 (b) Barracuda

(c) Swordfish

13. Hints on dealing with dangerous fish.

(a) Keep clothing on and keep a good look out.

(b) Do not fish if sharks, barracuda or swordfish are in the vicinity.

(c) Do not trail hands or feet over the side of the dinghy.

(d) Do not throw waste food or scraps overboard during the daytime.

(e) If dangerous fish are about, remain quiet and the likelihood of attack will
be negligible.

(f) Survivors in the water without a dinghy who are approached by

dangerous fish should form a circle facing outwards and beat the water with
strong regular strokes.

14. Seaweeds
Most seaweed are edible and, either raw or cooked form a valuable addition to
your diet, providing your water ration is adequate for they tend to make you
thirsty. Sea weeds are found mainly in inshore waters, but some of the sea weeds
floating on the open ocean are good to eat. The following simple rules should be
followed:

(a) Fresh, healthy specimens have no marked odor or flavor and are firm
and smooth to the touch. If the plant is wilted and slimy and has a fishy
smell, it is decaying and should not be eaten.

(b) Do not eat the threadlike or slender branched forms. They are not
poisonous, but may contain irritating acids. You can detect this by crushing
some with your hands, when the released acid will cause the plant to decay
so rapidly that within five minutes will give off an offensive colour.

(c) Inspect the seaweed for small, stinging organisms which may be living in
it. Crabs, shrimps, and small fish are often found attached to the seaweed
and can be shaken off in the dinghy.

15. Birds

All sea birds are edible, either raw or cooked, though some may taste a little
peculiar. They are scare in the open ocean, more than 100 miles from land. The
most characteristic of the ocean birds are the albatross, with a wing span of from
six to twelve feet, and the petrel and hooked-beaked shearwater, which are about
the size of a large pigeon. They can be caught, although not easily, by trolling led
floating bait.

16. Making a landfall

The chances are odds on that you will be found and rescued with in four or five
days. In time of war, the advisability of attempting to head out to sea would have
to be considered if ditching near an enemy held coastline. In peacetime, however,
as has already been stated, you should put out the drogue and stand near the scene
of ditching as long as possible. This will help the aircraft searching for you and
increase the chance of your eventual rescue. However, you may have ditched in a
remote part of the ocean where air and sea search is spares, and this, together with
other conditions such as favorable trade winds or ocean currents may ultimately
lead you to try to make a landfall. These dry islands, as the name suggests are
islands where the rainfall is insufficient for normal vegetation, but where can at
least rest before continuing their journey, or at least rest till rescued.

17. winds and currents

The movement of the dinghy will be mainly governed by the prevailing winds and
ocean currents and these can be utilized intelligently to make a landfall. The
following points should be kept in mind:

(a) The lower the dinghy rides in the water, and the lower its occupants sit or
lie, the greater will be the effect of the current.

(b) On the other hand, if the wind is favorable the dinghy should be
lightened as much as possible. Survivors should sit as erect as possible.
Survivors should sit as erect as possible to increase the wind effect and any
sort of makeshift sail will help. The drogue should be hauled inboard and the
water ballast pockets tripped.

18. Navigation and Direction at Sea

If you are in a large dingy with the remainder of your crew, and have your
navigation equipment with you, so much the better. However, you may be alone, or
without equipment. If so, the following hints will help you to determine and
maintain your course towards land or the shipping lanes:-

(a) If you have no compass, remember that the sun rises approximately in
the east and sets in the west. If you are north of latitude 23 ½ deg.N. The
 will pass to the south of you in the path across the sky. South of latitudes 23
½ deg.S.it will pass to the north of you. Between these latitudes the suns
path varies with the time of year.

19. Sunrise table

Direction in which sun rises-degrees east of the true north

Latitude Mar 21 May 5 June 22 Aug 9 Sep 23 Nov 7 Dec 22 Feb 5

60 north 89 55 37 55 89 122 140 122

30 north 90 71 63 71 90 108 116 108

0 equator 90 74 67 74 90 106 113 106

30 north 90 72 64 72 90 104 117 109

Note: All above are in degrees

(b) Between sunrise and sunset, and north and south of latitudes shown in
the table and approximate indication of direction can be obtained by using a
watch. point the hour hand at the sun and a point on the watch dial halfway
between the hour hand and twelve o’clock will indicate the approximate
direction of the true south if you are in the northern hemisphere, or of the
true north if you are in the southern hemisphere. In the tropics this method is
unreliable.

(c) At night if sky is clear, reliable indication of direction can be obtained

from stars. In the northern hemisphere true north can be ascerted from the
constellation of the Great bear, which points to Polaris (North Star), the star
over the North Pole. In the southern hemisphere, the Southern Cross
indicates the direction of the south. Other constellation, such as Orion, rise
in the east and set in the west moving to the south of you when you are north
of the equator and vice versa.
20. Land indications

(a) Cumulus clouds in an otherwise clear sky are likely to have been formed
over land.

(b) Very few sea birds sleep on the water, and very rarely do they fly more
than 100 miles from land. The recognition of these birds and their direction
of flight will often indicate the direction and distance of land. They fly away
from land before noon and return in the late afternoon and evening. Storms
sometimes blow land based birds far out to sea, so that a lone bird is not a
reliable indication.

(c) Lagoon giare a greenish tint in the sky or on the underside of a cloud
caused by the reflection of sunlight from the shallow water over coral reefs.

(d) Drifting wood or vegetation is often a sign of the proximity of land.

(e) Water that is muddy with silt is likely to have come from the mouth of a
large river.

CHAPTER-11
Mountain survival
Mountain peaks are exposed to high winds and often covered in snow. They
provide neither food nor shelter. Climbing rock and negotiating ice and snowfields
call for special skills, which are best learned firsthand in mountaineering schools
and practiced under supervision. But disaster may leave you on a mountainside or
force you to cross a mountain range to get out of danger.

If no rescue is likely, the first aim in daylight should be to get down into the
valleys where food and shelter re available. At night and in bad visibility it is too
dangerous. Some kind of shelter must be found until visibility improves.

Dig into the snow if there is no shelter among rocks and no wreckage to
provide cover. If below the snow line you must cover yourself to prevent exposure.
A plastic bag will make improvised sleeping bag, if you will have no survival kit.

On a slope, sleep with your head uphill, on rough and stony ground sleep on
your stomach for greater comfort.

1. Judging terrain

As you descend a mountainside it will often be difficult to see what is below you.
Can you move around a valley or along a spur to look back at what was below?
The opposite side of a valley will give you some idea of what is on your side too.

Be cautioned if you find you are looking at a distant slope beyond a

foreground bluff, the ground is likely to fall steeply between. Cree slope can be
particularly deceptive and appear continuous until you are very close to a cliff.

(a) Descent
Negotiating cliff without a rope is extremely dangerous. On the steepest
cliffs it is necessary to come down facing the cliff and very difficult to see
foot holds below. If there is an adjoining slope, a colleague can observe and
give directions. Once down, you can then point out holds to others from
below. A high cliff should never be attempted. In the case of a plane crash
there is probably more risk in climbing than waiting for rescue.

To climb down rock faces which are less steep and with deeper
ledges, adopt a sideway position using the inside hand for support. For easier
crags, descend facing outwards with the body bent and where possible carry
weight on the palms of the hands.

(b) Ascent

Climbing upwards, holds are easier to see, but is always safer to go round
than over obstacles if you are traveling without knowing the route. You
could get stuck with an impossible descent.

Always work out your route from the bottom and in climbing keep the
body away from the rock and look up. Move only one hand or one foot at a
time-always keep three points of contact. Keep your weight evenly balanced
on the feet rather than hang from the hands. Do not overstretch.

With the feet firmly planted on the rock and one hand grasping a good
hold, reach with the other for a hold just above the head. Test it and then
look for another hold for the other hand or the feet. Use small intermediate
holds, avoid becoming spread-eagled and let the legs do mot of the work.
Always place the feet as flat as possible to make maximum contact with
rock.

(c) Descending by rope

With a rope firmly anchored at the upper level, it is possible to descend the
sheerest cliff. The technique, known as abseiling or rappelling, can involve a
special sit sling and a karabiner for the rope to pass through, but the basic
 method uses just a doubled rope. The rope does not move-you move down it.
It is not comfortable, even with the body correctly angled, but it is the safest
way to negotiate steep or very slippery slopes. Friction can damage clothing
and skin, so if you can, pad out your shoulders and groin, and wear gloves.

Note-make sure that you are in a firm position before hauling the rope down-
its sudden weight could affect your balance-and be sure that you have planned
your next move. Once the rope is down you may have no way of retracing
your steps.

(d) Ascending with ropes

Belaying is a method of helping others to climb up. First, one person must
make the ascent with the rope (this could be a light line to haul the actual
rope afterwards) attached around the waist with a bowline. At each stage of
the ascent there must be a platform or ledge to accommodate all the party
and a secure anchor for the rope. If there are a number of lengths of a series
of stage could be operated at the same time and handle a large party.

Test that the anchor is firm-a tree, spike of rock or thread (a hole
through rock, or a stone or small boulder firmly wedged in a
crevices).anchor the rope with a loop tied in a figure-of-eight or an overhand
knot.

Belayer ties on with a bight or two bights to steady himself, and

passes climbing rope over head and down to hips making a twist around the
arm closest to the anchor and take up any slack. Climber ties on with a

bowline around waist and begins to mount.belayer takes in a rope to keep it

taught.
Note-falling rock can kill! On loose rock always test holds gently and never
pull outwards on a loose hole.

Be careful that your rope does not dislodge rocks. Even small felling
rocks can inflict serious injury, if you knock a piece down, shout a warning to
those below.

CHAPTER-12
Desert Survival
Deserts are arid, barren regions of the earth incapable of support to familiar life
forms due to lack of fresh water. Desert terrain may vary considerably from place
to place, the sole common denominator being lack of water.

1. There are three basic types of deserts:

(a) Mountain desert:

These are characterized by scattered ranges of areas of barren hills or low

mountains, separated by dry, flat basins. High ground may rise gradually or
abruptly from the flat areas. Most of the rainfall occurs in the highland, in
violent, infrequent showers, which erode deep ravines and gullies.

(b) Rocky plateau:

These deserts have relatively slight relief interspersed by extensive, sand

filled areas with quantities of solid or broken rock at or near the surface. The
plateau may be cut by steep-walled, eroded valleys, the result of floods from
frequent rains.

(c) Sandy deserts:

These are sometimes called dune deserts, are extensive flat areas covered
with sand or gravel. Dunes created by the wind may reach over a thousand
feet high. Plant life may vary from none to scrub of several

feet.Trafficability depends on the gradient of the dunes and the texture of the
sand.

2. Finding water
 (a) Look for springs and seepages.

(b) Watch for water indicators in desert environment.

(c) Desert often knows of lingering surface pools in low places.

(d) Places that are visibly damp, where animals have scratched, or where
flies hover, indicate surface water.

(e) Dig in dry stream beds because water may be found under the gravel.

(f) Plant tissues

(g) Roots of desert plants.

(h) Vines

(j) Palms

(k) Coconut

3. Food in desert

(a) Vegetation

(b) Scorpions

(c) Flies

(d) Fleas

(e) Reptiles

(f) Snakes

(g) Mammals

4. Effects of the desert

(a) Heat
 (b) Exhaustion

(c) Agoraphobia

(d) Dehydration

(e) Climate stress

(f) Sun burn

(g) Heat injury

(h) Heat cramps

(j) Heat exhaustion

(k) Heat stroke

(l) Desert sickness

5. Do’s and don’ts in desert :

(a) Always protect your head and face from direct contact to hot wind.

(b) Wear sunglasses at least during daytime.

(c) Sunbathing or dozing in the desert sun can be fatal.

(d) Take frequent drinks since they are more often effective than drinking
the same amount all at once.

(e) Perform heavy work in cooler hours of the day such as early morning or
late evening, if possible.

(f) Take frequent rest in the shade, if possible.

(g) Carry as much water as possible with you.

(h) Wash face as many times as possible. The eyelids should be cleaned
daily.

(j) Replace salt loss trough eating meals.

CHAPTER-13
Snow survival
In the artic the pole is capped by deep ice floating on the sea and all the land
north of timber line is frozen. There are only two seasons-a long winter and
a short summer-the day varying from complete darkness in midwinter to 24
hrs daylight in summer. The temperature is low even when there is no
snowfall. The wind speed makes it worst to survive as it is too cold.

1. Travel

Experience shows the best policy is to stay near an aircraft or disabled

vehicle. If the spot is hazardous establish a safe shelter as close as possible.
A decision to walk out will be based on nearness to civilization and
probability of rescue.
Decide early what to do-while you can still think clearly. Cold dulls the
mind.
Mosquito, black-fly, deerfly and midges can all be nuisance in the artic
summer. Their larvae live in water-avoid making shelter nearby. Keep
sleeves down, collar up, wear a net over the head and burn green woods and
leaves on the fire-smoke keeps them at bay. When it turns colder, these
nuisances are less active and they disappear at night.

2. Navigation

Compasses are unreliable near the poles, the constellation are better
direction-finders and nights light enough to travel by. By day use the shadow
tip method.
While traveling on sea ice do not use icebergs or distant landmarks to fix
direction. Floes are constantly moving-relative position may change. Watch
for ice breaking up and, if forced to cross from floe to floe, leap from and to
a spot at least 60cm from the edge.
Avoid icebergs, they have most of there mask below the water. As this
melts, they can turn over without warning, particularly with your added
weight.
Avoid sailing close to ice-cliffs. glaciors may ‘calve’ huge masses of ice,
often thousand of tones which break of into the sea without warning.
Bird observation can add navigation. Migrating wildfowl fly to land on the
thaw. Most sea birds fly out to sea during the day and return at night.
Sky reflection help to determine determine distant terrain. Clouds over open
water, timber or snow-free ground appear black below. Over sea ice and
snow fields, white.

3. Follow rivers

Travel downstream-by raft in summer, on the ice in winter except in

northern Siberia where rivers flow north.
On frozen rivers keep to smoother ice at the edges and to outer curve on the
bend. Where two rivers join follow the outside edge or take to the
outerbank.if the river has many bends leave the ice and travel by higher
ridges.

Note-ice cold water is a killer. Falling into icy water knocks the breathe
out of you. The body curls up with loss of muscular control and violent
shivering. Exposed parts freeze in about 4 minutes, consciousness clouds
in 7, death follows in 15-20.

4. Remember this method

COLD

The key to keeping warm

 Keep it – CLEAN – Dirt and grease block air spaces!

Avoid – OVERHEATING – Ventilate!

Wear it – LOOSE –allow air to circulate!

Keep it- DRY- outside and inside!

5. Shelter

You cannot stay in the open to rest. Get out of the wind. Look for natural
shelter you can improve on, but avoid the lee side of cliffs where snow could
drift and bury shelter, or sites where rock fall or avalanche is likely. Avoid
snow laden trees-the weight could bring down frozen branches-unless the
lower boughs are supported on the snow. There may be space beneath the
branch which will provide a ready-made shelter.

Note-don’t block every hole to keep out draughts. You must have
ventilation, especially if burning a fire inside your shelter. Otherwise
you may asphyxiate.

6. Water

Even in the cold water you need over a litre daily to replace losses. In
summer water is plentiful in tundra lakes and streams. Pond water may look
brown and taste brackish but vegetation growing in it keeps it fresh. If I
doubt boil.
 In winter melt ice and snow. Do not eat crushed ice, it can injure your
mouth and lips and also cause further dehydration. Thaw snow sufficiently
to mould into a ball before attempting to suck it.

Note-if already cold and tired eating snow will further chill your body.

7. Food

(a) Lichens and mosses

(b) Penguins

(c) Polar bear

(d) Foxes

(e) Ground spreading willow

(f) Birch and berry plants

(g) Reindeer
(h) Shaggy musk-ox

(j) Moose

(k) Squirrels
 (l) Mountain hares

(m) Seals

8. AVOID

(a) Water hemlock

(b) Fruit of baneberry

(c) Small arctic buttercups

(d) Lupin
(e) Monkshood

(f) Larkspur

(g) Vetch

(h) Death camas

9. Avoiding frost-bite

(a) Wrinkle face to stop stiff patches forming, pulling muscles in

every direction. Exercise hands.

(b) Watch yourself and others for patches of waxy, Redding or

blackened skin, especially on faces, ears, hands.

(c) Avoid tight clothing which will reduce circulation.

(d) Dress inside warmth of sleeping bag.

(e) Never go out without adequate clothing – however briefly. Avoid

getting clothing wet, through sweat or water. Dry it as soon as
possible if this happens.

(f) Knock snow off before entering shelter, or leave outer clothing at
entrance. Snow will melt in warmth giving you more clothing to dry.

(g) Wear gloves and keep them dry. Never touch metal with bare
hands.

(h) Avoid spilling petrol on bare flesh. In sub-zero temperature it will

freeze almost at once and does even more damage than water because
of its lower melting point.

(j) Be especially careful if you have been working hard and are
fatigued. If you are sick-take rest.

(k) Wear goggles