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Stiemer
ABSTRACT
An overview of the fatigue process and behaviour of fatigue loading is
given. Bolted connections in both tension and shear are discussed in
detail with emphasis placed on the location of failure, fatigue design
curves, influence of preloading, joint stiffness, and contact area. Anchor
bolts are also briefly discussed. Design requirements as per CSA S16.1-
99 and AISC LRFD-1999 are given. Various methods on how to
minimize fatigue problems are presented.
1 INTRODUCTION
Figure 1. Fracture surface of a typical paper clip broken by 6 cycles of
Under certain conditions a material may fail due to the repeated repeated bending (80x).1
application of loads that are not large enough to cause failure in a single
application. This phenomenon is referred to as fatigue failure. The 2 THE FATIGUE PROCESS
existence of fatigue failure implies that, under repeated stresses, Fatigue failure will only occur if the following essential conditions are
materials undergo some internal progressive, permanent structural present: cyclic tensile loads, stress levels above a threshold value, fatigue
changes. Fatigue failures are often more dangerous than other typical susceptible material, and a flaw in the material. If these conditions are
failures because they generally occur suddenly, without significant prior present, then the following events can occur, leading to fatigue failure
deformations. Figure 1 shows a fatigue induced fracture surface. (Figure 2):
Fatigue failure in bolted connections is generally caused by repeated 1. Crack initiation
cycles of tension loading. Although failures under repeated cyclic 2. Crack growth
compression loads are know, these are rare and will be ignored in this
discussion. 3. Crack propagation
4. Final rupture
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crack to propagate into the still undamaged material ahead of it. The
crack only propagates a finite distance in each loading cycle; this
advance may by as much as 25 µ m/cycle.1 The back stresses exerted on
the material during unloading cause deformation markings often called
striations or beach marks, as shown in Figure 3.
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A bolt and nut loaded axially, as shown in Figure 6, has three possible 3. Whether or not the external tension load exceeds the critical load
fatigue crack initiation locations: required to separate the joint (depends on the magnitude of the
a. Head-shank transition initial preload).
b. Runout of thread The effect of preloading, where there is tensile loading on the bolted
c. Thread at nut connection, is illustrated for a flange connection in Figures 7 and 8. The
thickness of the flange is assumed to be large enough to neglect bending
flexibility and possible prying forces.
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In the case with a preload force Fv, this force will initially be in
equilibrium with the contact force Fc on the contact area of the flanges,
(Figure 8). These two flanges act like one as long as the external load Ft
is less than the preload Fv. As a result, the external load applied to the
bolts will change very little. As shown in the diagram, the increase in the
external force is compensated largely by a decrease of the contact force
Fc and small increases in the forces in the bolt Fb. Only the elastic
deformation of the two flanges will cause change in the bolt load. The
flanges, however, are relatively stiff compared to the bolt area and
therefore this effect is minimal. But, the load in the bolts will increase
rapidly as soon as the contact surfaces separate due to the external force
surpassing the preload force Fv. When this has occurred the situation is
equivalent to the non-preloaded case. As long as the external load Ft is
below the preload force Fv the situation can be considered as a three- Figure 9. The effect of varying Fb and Kb /Kj ratios. (Note that the initial
spring system. preload is the same in each case). 2
The amount of variation of the forces in the bolts due to the variation in
the external load is dependent on the stiffness ratio of the flange and bolt
(Figure 9). The more flexible the bolt, the less force variation it will
undergo. Using more washers or using spring washers will increase the
bolt’s length, thereby making the bolt more flexible. Inserting gaskets
between the flanges will make the flange assembly more flexible, leading
to possible detrimental effects. The flange thickness must also be
adequate to reduce bending flexibility; otherwise the location on the
contact forces may become critical.
4.3 THE INFLUENCE OF THE LOCATION OF THE CONTACT AREA
When the bolts of the connection are subjected to a preload force, contact
forces are induced on the connecting surface. The location of the
developed contact forces will affect the fatigue life of the connection.
Figures 10 and 11 shows an example where the flange thickness is much
smaller than in Figures 7 and 8 and is, therefore, more susceptible to
bending. In this figure, introducing shims develops contact forces. In
both cases, the bolts are tightened to the same preload. A schematic
model of the relevant spring system is shown in Figure 10, while Figure
11 shows the measured bolt forces with respect to an external load.
Figure 10. Flange connection with different location of contact forces. 3
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In these connections the stress is concentrated around the hole. Since the 5.1.2 Preloaded Bolts
bolt shank is also loaded in bearing, it too will experience high stress
When the bolts are preloaded, the applied force is transferred by friction
concentrations, (Figure 14a).
between the plate surfaces. High Strength Friction Grip Bolts (HSFG)
are used to obtain the necessary compressive stresses between the plates
to enable the load to be transferred by friction. The load is transferred
over a large area around the bolt (Figure 14b), and therefore the load
transfer is not as great as in the non-preloaded bolt case. These types of
connections can be used when the variable load changes sign.
For preloaded-bolts there are no stress concentration at the hole. In fact
the stresses may even be less than the nominal stresses. This is due to the
fact that the load has been transferred to an area around the hole.
5.2 LOCATION OF FAILURE
5.2.1 Non-Preloaded Bolts
The crack will occur at the hole due to the large stress concentration.
Another potential failure location could be in the bolt as a result of the
variable shear load applied to the shank at the shear plane. If this type of
connection is used, the threaded part of the bolt should not be located in
the shear plane, as the notch effect could drastically reduce the fatigue
resistance, (Figure 14a).
5.2.2 Pre-Loaded Bolts
In the case of non-preloaded bolts, the stress concentrations do not
generally occur near the hole. The contact pressure decreases radially
from the hole. Fatigue cracks will usually develop in the gross section of
the plate (see Figure 14b), were the contact pressure is not high enough
to prevent slip.
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effects, which may influence the fatigue life of a bolted connection. It is,
therefore, left to the designers to use their professional judgment.
8 MINIMIZING FATIGUE PROBLEMS
There are many steps that a designer can take to minimize fatigue related
problems. Each of these is related to the conditions that are necessary for
fatigue to occur: cyclic tensile loads, stresses above an endurance limit, a
susceptible material, and an initial flaw. In general, most of the steps that
we can take are intended to reduce stress levels (and concentrations)
and/or to reduce the load excursion seen by the bolt.
8.1 MINIMIZING STRESS LEVELS
The following are just a few of the steps that a designer can take to
minimize stress levels. Many of these are incorporated in ‘fatigue
resistant fasteners’, which are available from some fastener
manufacturers.
Rolling treads instead of cutting them provides a smother thread finish
(fewer initial cracks). The rolling process induces a residual compressive Figure 16. Joints should be designed so that maximum loads do not fall
stress in the bolts, which acts as a compressive preload, thereby helping on stress concentration points of the fastener.2
to reduce the tensile load excursions. The thread run-out should be gradual rather than abrupt. It has been
A generous fillet between the head and shank will reduce stress suggested that a taper of 15o should be used to minimize stress
concentrations. The exact shape is also important; an elliptical fillet, for concentrations at this critical point (Figure 17). 2
example, is better than a circular one.2 Increasing the radius of a circular
fillet will also help
If the face of the nut, the undersides of the bolt head, and/or joint surface
are not perpendicular to the thread axis and the boltholes, the fatigue life
can be seriously affected.2
Bolts under tension see stress concentrations at the head-to-shank fillet,
first threads to engage the nut, and at the thread run-out. Anything that
may impose additional loading to these regions will be detrimental.
Some of these situations are shown in Figure 16.
Figure 17. Thread run-out should be gradual.2
Anything that can be done to minimize corrosion will reduce the
possibilities of crack initiation and/or crack growth and will, therefore,
extend fatigue life.
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Figure 18 shows a proposed fastener, which, because of its geometry, can determine if the applied stress range is within the desired limit for a
greatly reduce stress concentrations and, therefore increase the fatigue required number of load cycles. This may be relatively accurate for
life of the connection. normal steel members or welded connections; however, it does not
adequately address bolted connections, as there are numerous connection
types that do not fall under a prescribed design category. It is therefore
up to the designers to use their judgment or undergo further rigorous
analysis in order to determine if the connection is adequate to resist
fatigue.
By minimizing stress levels or reducing load variations, the designer may
make the connection less prone to fatigue failure.
REFERENCES
Figure 18. Flanges, dished, and undercut nut and bolt head used to 1
Young J., Mindess S, Gray R. and Bentur A. 1998. The Science and
improve stress distribution.2
Technology of Civil Engineering Materials. Prentice Hall: 152-175.
8.2 REDUCING LOAD VARIATIONS
Nothing can help extend the fatigue life of a bolt or joint more 2
Bickford J. 1990. An Introduction to the Design and Behaviour of
dramatically than a reduction in load variations. Bolted Joints, 2nd Edition. Marcel Dekker: 467-494.
It will greatly help to correctly identify and apply the maximum safe
preload that the joint can withstand. Minimizing the bolt-to-joint stiffness 3
http://www.kuleuven.ac.be/bwk/materials/Teaching/master/toc.htm,
ratio, (as well as proper location of contact forces), so that the load November 2003.
excursions and external loads will be seen by the joint and not the bolt
will reduce fatigue problems. 4
Canadian Institute of Steel Construction. 1997. Handbook of Steel
9 CONCLUSIONS Construction, 7nd Edition. CISC.
Fatigue failure of bolted connections is a serious problem in steel
structures, as the failure happens suddenly without prior warning. It 5
American Institute of Steel Construction. 1999. Load and Resistance
occurs in areas were the applied stress is cyclic and tensile in nature, and Factor Design Specification for Steel Buildings. CISC.
where there is a stress concentration.
Bolted connections are commonly used in both tension and shear, each
with varying fatigue characteristics. The fatigue life of the connection
depends on many factors including: the magnitude of the varying applied 10 CREDITS
load, duration of the varying load, fastener geometry, preloading of the
bolt, relative stiffness of the bolt and joint and the contact area. The text above has been based on a term project done by Mr. Chris
Designing to withstand fatigue related failures are addressed in both the Meisl for the CIVL510 course in 2003.
Canadian CSA S16.1-94 and American AISC LRFD-1999 design codes.
These codes provide a method that is based on experimental testing to
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