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α ( x)
► Os infinitésimos α (x) e β (x) dizem-se de mesma ordem se o limite lim β ( x) é
x→ x 0
α ( x) β ( x)
Obviamente com lim β ( x) finito e diferente de zero tem-se lim α ( x) finito e
x→ x 0 x→ x 0
diferente de zero:
β ( x) 1 1
lim α ( x) = lim α ( x) = α ( x)
.
x→ x 0 x→ x 0
lim β ( x)
β ( x) x→ x 0
α ( x) α ( x)
► Se o limite lim β ( x) = 0 , isto é,
β ( x)
é um infinitésimo (neste caso
x→ x 0
β ( x) β ( x)
lim α ( x) = ∞ , , isto é,
α ( x)
é um infinitamente grande), então o infinitésimo
x→ x 0
α ( x) β ( x)
► Se o limite lim β ( x) não existe (neste caso lim α ( x) também não existe),
x→ x 0 x→ x 0
Por exemplo:
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Matemática 1 Anatolie Sochirca ACM DEETC ISEL
x
tg
lim x = 3, lim x5 = 5 ,
sen3x 1 x +1 −1
= l im
(
x + 1 − 12 1
= ,
)
2
ex −1
= 1.
x →0 x →0
lim
x→0
x x →0 x ⋅ x +1 +1 2( ) lim
x →0
x
sen x − tgx
lim sen x tgx
= l im −
sen x
= l im
tgx
− l im
x x → 0 x x →0 x
= 1−1 = 0 ,
x →0 x x →0 x
x x
2 sen 2 2 ⋅ sen
1 − cosx 2 2 x
lim x = lim x = lim ⋅ sen =
x 2
x →0 x →0
x→0 2 ⋅
2
x
sen
2⋅ x
= l im l im sen = 1 ⋅ 0 = 0 ,
x 2
x →0
x →0
2
2⋅ x +1 − 2 − x 2 ⋅ x +1 − 2
lim x
= l im
x
− 1 =
x →0 x →0
= l im
( )(
2 ⋅ x +1 − 2 ⋅ 2 ⋅ x +1 + 2 )
− 1 = l im
4x + 4 − 4
− 1 =
x →0 (
x ⋅ 2 ⋅ x +1 + 2 )
x →0 x ⋅ 2 ⋅ x + 1 + 2 ( )
4x 4
= l im − 1 = l im − 1 = 1 − 1 = 0 .
(
x →0 x ⋅ 2 ⋅ x +1 + 2 ) (
x →0 2 ⋅ x + 1 + 2 )
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Matemática 1 Anatolie Sochirca ACM DEETC ISEL
lim sen x − tgx = lim sen x − tgx =
x 1 1 1
= = ∞,
x →0 x →0 sen x − tgx 0
l im
x x →0
x
x
lim 1 − cosx = lim 1 − cosx =
1 1 1
= =∞,
x →0 x→0 1 − cosx 0
l im
x x→0
x
x 1 1 1
lim 2 ⋅ x + 1 − 2 − x = lim 2 ⋅ x + 1 − 2 − x =
= = ∞.
2 ⋅ x +1 − 2 − x 0
x →0 x →0
l im
x x
x →0
1
● Numa vizinhança do ponto x0 = 0 a função x ⋅ sen é um infinitésimo (produto de
x
um infinitésimo por uma função limitada),
1
x ⋅ sen 1
lim x x = lim sen x e
1 x 1
lim = l im
=
lim sen x
1 1 1
x →0
x →0 x →0
x ⋅ sen x →0 sen
x x x →0
1
não existem e portanto os infinitésimos x e x ⋅ sen não são comparáveis.
x
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Matemática 1 Anatolie Sochirca ACM DEETC ISEL
∆ f ( x0 ) = f ′( x0 ) ⋅ ∆ x + α ( x0 , ∆ x ) ,
α (x0 , ∆ x )
lim = 0.
∆ x →0
∆x
Portanto
d f ( x0 ) = f ′( x0 ) ⋅ ∆ x ,
d f ( x) = f ′( x) ⋅ ∆ x ,
d f ( x) = f ′( x) ⋅ d x = y ′x ⋅ d x .
Daqui obtemos
d f ( x) d y
y ′x = f ′( x) = = ,
dx dx
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Matemática 1 Anatolie Sochirca ACM DEETC ISEL
isto é, a derivada de uma função pode ser interpretada como um quociente de duas
grandezas arbitrárias (porque d x = ∆ x é arbitrário). Realmente as grandezas d x e d y
variam proporcionalmente e a derivada y ′x é o coeficiente de proporcionalidade.
Exemplo 1. Calcular o diferencial da função f ( x) = x 3 − 2 x no ponto x0 = 2 para o
acréscimo ∆ x = 0,01 .
∆ f ( x ) = ( x 0 + ∆x ) 3 − 2 ( x 0 + ∆x ) − ( x 0 ) 3 + 2 x 0 =
= ( x 0 ) 3 + 3 ⋅ ( x 0 ) 2 ⋅ ∆x + 3 ⋅ x 0 ⋅ ( ∆x ) 2 + ( ∆x ) 3 − 2 x 0 − 2 ⋅ ∆ x − ( x 0 ) 3 + 2 x 0 =
α ( x 0 , ∆x ) 3 ⋅ x 0 ⋅ ( ∆x ) 2 + ( ∆x ) 3
lim ∆x
= l im
∆x
( )
= l im 3 ⋅ x0 ⋅ ∆x + (∆x) 2 = 3 ⋅ x0 ⋅ 0 + 0 2 = 0 .
∆x → 0 ∆x →0 ∆x → 0
( ) ( )
d f ( x0 ) = f ′( x0 ) ⋅ d x = 3 ⋅ ( x0 ) 2 − 2 ⋅ ∆ x = 3 ⋅ 2 2 − 2 ⋅ 0,01 = 0,1 .
Nota 2. É óbvio que é mais fácil calcular o diferencial com aplicação da derivada
porque neste caso não é necessário determinar o acréscimo da função correspondente
ao acréscimo do argumento.
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Matemática 1 Anatolie Sochirca ACM DEETC ISEL
NK
= tgα ⇔ NK = MN ⋅ tgα = f ′( x0 ) ⋅ ∆ x = d f ( x0 ) .
MN
Portanto o diferencial da função no ponto x0 representa o acréscimo da ordenada da
recta tangente traçada ao gráfico no ponto M ( x0 , f ( x0 ) ) correspondente ao acréscimo
∆ x do argumento (figura 1).
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Matemática 1 Anatolie Sochirca ACM DEETC ISEL
∆ f ( x) ≅ df ( x) = f ′( x) ⋅ dx .
∆ f ( x) = f ( x + ∆ x) − f ( x) ≅ f ′( x) ⋅ dx ⇒ f ( x + ∆ x) ≅ f ( x) + f ′( x) ⋅ dx .
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Matemática 1 Anatolie Sochirca ACM DEETC ISEL
∆ y = ( x + ∆ x ) 2 − x 2 = x 2 + 2 x ⋅ ∆ x + ( ∆ x ) 2 − x 2 = 2 x ⋅ ∆ x + ( ∆ x) 2 .
′
( )
dy = d ( x 2 ) = x 2 ⋅ d x = 2 x ⋅ dx .
e 2 x +1
a) f ( x) = 4 ⋅ l n (3 x 2 + 2 ) − 3 x − 2 ; b) f ( x) = x 3 ⋅ 3 x ; c) f ( x) = .
x
Resolução.
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Matemática 1 Anatolie Sochirca ACM DEETC ISEL
1 ′
( 2
( 3
′
)
2
)
′
(3
a) d f ( x) = 4 ⋅ l n 3x + 2 − x − 2 ⋅ dx = 4 ⋅ l n 3x + 2 − x − 2 ⋅ dx = ( ))
−
2
−
2
′
4
= 2 ( 1
) 3
3 x 2 + 2 − x − 2 ⋅ ( x − 2)′ ⋅ dx = 2
24 x 1 3
− x − 2 ⋅ dx .
3x + 2 3 3x + 2 3
′ ′ ′
b) d f ( x) = (x 3 ⋅ 3 x ) ⋅ d x = (x 3 ) ⋅ 3 x + x 3 ⋅ (3 x ) ⋅ d x = (3 ⋅ x 2 ⋅ 3 x + x 3 ⋅ 3 x ⋅ ln 3) ⋅ d x =
= x 2 ⋅ 3 x ⋅ (3 + x ⋅ ln 3) ⋅ d x .
′ ′
e 2 x +1
c) d f ( x) = ⋅ dx =
( )
e 2 x +1 ⋅ x − e 2 x +1 ⋅ x ′
⋅ dx =
x x2
e 2 x +1 ⋅ (2 x + 1)′ ⋅ x − e 2 x +1 2 ⋅ x ⋅ e 2 x +1 − e 2 x +1
= ⋅ dx = ⋅ dx .
x2 x2
π π
a) f ( x) = sen 2 x no ponto x = para ∆x = ;
6 50
1
b) f ( x) = x 2 + 2 x + e x no ponto x = 0 para ∆ x = .
100
Resolução.
Portanto
π π π π π 1 π π
d f = 2cos 2 ⋅ ⋅ = 2cos ⋅ = 2⋅ ⋅ = .
6 6 50 3 50 2 50 50
′
( ) (
b) d f ( x) = x 2 + 2 x + e x ⋅ dx = 2 x + 2 + e x ⋅ dx . )
Portanto
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Matemática 1 Anatolie Sochirca ACM DEETC ISEL
( ) 100
d f ( 0) = 2 ⋅ 0 + 2 + e 0 ⋅
1
=
3
100
.
Exemplo 5.
Determinar o acréscimo do raio R de uma circunferência se o perímetro dela
aumenta de 32 ⋅ π cm para 32,2 ⋅ π cm.
Resolução.
0,2 ⋅ π
⋅ (32,2 ⋅ π − 32 ⋅ π ) =
1 1
∆R ≅ dR (32 ⋅ π ) = = = 0,1 (cm).
2π 2π 10
Exemplo 6.
Determinar o acréscimo do volume V de uma bola se o raio dela aumenta de
15 cm para 15,2 cm.
Resolução.
′
4 4
Temos V ( R ) = ⋅ π ⋅ R 3 e dV ( R ) = ⋅ π ⋅ R 3 ⋅ dR = 4 ⋅ π ⋅ R 2 ⋅ dR .
3 3
Portanto aproximando o acréscimo do volume pelo diferencial da função
4
V ( R) = ⋅ π ⋅ R 3 e levando em conta que
3
dR = ∆ R = 15,2 − 15 = 0,2
obtemos:
∆V ≅ dV (15) = 4 ⋅ π ⋅ 15 2 ⋅ 0,2 = 180π ( cm 3 ).
Exemplo 7. Utilizando a derivada determinar o diferencial no ponto (1, 0) da função
y = f ( x) dada implicitamente por
e x⋅ y + 2 x 2 − y 3 = 3 .
Resolução.
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Matemática 1 Anatolie Sochirca ACM DEETC ISEL
e x⋅ y + 2 x 2 − y 3 = 3 ⇒ (e x⋅ y
+ 2x 2 − y 3 )′ = (3)′ ⇒ (e )′ + (2 x )′ − (y )′ = 0
x⋅ y 2 3
⇒
′
e x⋅ y ⋅ ( x ⋅ y ) + 4 x − 3 y 2 ⋅ y ′ = 0 ⇒ e x ⋅ y ⋅ ( y + x ⋅ y ′ ) + 4 x − 3 y 2 ⋅ y ′ = 0 ⇒
y ⋅ e x⋅ y + x ⋅ y ′ ⋅ e x⋅ y + 4 x − 3 y 2 ⋅ y ′ = 0 ⇒ ( )
y ′ ⋅ x ⋅ e x⋅ y − 3 y 2 = − 4 x − y ⋅ e x⋅ y ⇒
4 x + y ⋅ e x⋅ y
y ′( x) = − .
x ⋅ e x⋅ y − 3 y 2
Portanto
4 x + y ⋅ e x⋅ y
d y ( x) = y ′( x) ⋅ dx = − ⋅ dx
x ⋅ e x⋅ y − 3 y 2
e
4 ⋅ 1 + 0 ⋅ e1⋅0
d y (1) = y ′(1) ⋅ dx = − ⋅ dx = − 4 ⋅ dx .
1 ⋅ e1⋅0 − 3 ⋅ 0 2
xy = yx ⇒ (x )′ = ( y )′
y x
⇒
Utilizando a fórmula
([ f ( x)] )′ = g ( x) ⋅ [ f ( x)]
g ( x) g ( x ) −1
⋅ f ′( x) + [ f ( x)]
g ( x)
⋅ g ′( x) ⋅ l n( f ( x) )
na continuação temos:
y ⋅ x y −1 ⋅ x ′ + x y ⋅ y ′ ⋅ l nx = x ⋅ y x −1 ⋅ y ′ + y x ⋅ x ′ ⋅ l ny ⇒
y ⋅ x y −1 + x y ⋅ y ′ ⋅ l nx = x ⋅ y x −1 ⋅ y ′ + y x ⋅ l ny ⇒
y x ⋅ l n y − y ⋅ x y −1
( )
y ′ ⋅ x y ⋅ l nx − x ⋅ y x −1 = y x ⋅ l n y − y ⋅ x y −1 ⇒ y′ =
x y ⋅ l nx − x ⋅ y x −1
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Matemática 1 Anatolie Sochirca ACM DEETC ISEL
y y
y −1 y x ⋅ ln y − ⋅x
y ⋅ ln y − y ⋅ x
(com x )
x
y′ = ⇒ y′ = x y
= yx ⇒
x y ⋅ l nx − x ⋅ y x −1 x
x y ⋅ l nx − ⋅ y x
y
y y
y x ⋅ ln y − ln y −
y′ = x
⇒ y′ = x.
x lnx −
x
y x ⋅ l n x −
y y
y 1
ln y − l n1 −
Portanto d y = y ′ ⋅ dx = x ⋅ d x e d y (1) = y ′(1) ⋅ dx = 1 ⋅ d x = dx .
x 1
lnx − l n1 −
y 1
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Matemática 1 Anatolie Sochirca ACM DEETC ISEL
d2y
e y ′x′ = .
d x2
( ) ( )
d 3 y = d d 2 y = d y ′x′ ⋅ d x 2 = d ( y ′x′ ) ⋅ d x 2 = y x(3) ⋅ d x ⋅ d x 2 = y x(3) ⋅ (d x ) = y x(3) ⋅ d x 3
3
d3y
e y x(3) = .
d x3
Geralmente temos:
( ) ( ) ( )
d n y = d d n −1 y = d y x( n −1) ⋅ d x n −1 = d y xn −1 ⋅ d x n −1 = y x( n ) ⋅ d x ⋅ d x n −1 = y x( n ) ⋅ (d x ) = y x( n ) ⋅ d x n
n
dny
e y = . (n)
x
d xn
Fórmula de Leibniz para cálculo do diferencial de ordem n do produto de duas
funções:
n
d n (u ⋅ v ) = ∑ C ni d n −i u ⋅ d i v , com d 0 u = u , d 0 v = v .
i =0
Seja
Pn ( x) = a 0 + a1 ⋅ x + a 2 ⋅ x 2 + a3 ⋅ x 3 + L + a n −1 ⋅ x n −1 + a n ⋅ x n (3)
′
Pn ( x) = a1 + 2 ⋅ a 2 ⋅ x + 3 ⋅ a3 ⋅ x 2 + L + (n − 1) ⋅ a n −1 ⋅ x n − 2 + n ⋅ a n ⋅ x n −1 ;
″
Pn ( x) = 1 ⋅ 2 ⋅ a 2 + 2 ⋅ 3 ⋅ a3 ⋅ x + L + (n − 2) ⋅ (n − 1) ⋅ a n −1 ⋅ x n −3 + (n − 1) ⋅ n ⋅ a n ⋅ x n − 2 ;
Pn( 3 ) ( x) = 1 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 3 ⋅ a 3 + L + (n − 3) ⋅ (n − 2) ⋅ (n − 1) ⋅ a n −1 ⋅ x n − 4 + (n − 2) ⋅ (n − 1) ⋅ n ⋅ a n ⋅ x n −3 ;
Pn( n −1) ( x) = 1 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 3 ⋅ L ⋅ (n − 2) ⋅ (n − 1) ⋅ a n −1 + 2 ⋅ 3 ⋅ L ⋅ (n − 2) ⋅ (n − 1) ⋅ n ⋅ a n ⋅ x ;
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Matemática 1 Anatolie Sochirca ACM DEETC ISEL
Pn( n ) ( x) = 1 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 3 ⋅ L ⋅ (n − 2) ⋅ (n − 1) ⋅ n ⋅ a n .
′ ″
Pn (0) Pn (0) 2 Pn( 3 ) (0) 3
Pn ( x) = Pn (0) + ⋅x+ ⋅x + ⋅ x +L+
1! 2! 3!
A fórmula (4) difere de fórmula (3) só pelas representações dos coeficientes e chama-se
o desenvolvimento do polinómio Pn (x) em potências de x .
Exemplo 9. Seja P5 ( x) = 2 + 4 ⋅ x − 5 ⋅ x 3 + x 5 .
Temos:
′ ″
P5 ( x) = 4 − 15 ⋅ x 2 + 5 ⋅ x 4 ; P5 ( x) = −30 ⋅ x + 20 ⋅ x 3 ; P5 ( 3 ) ( x) = −30 + 60 ⋅ x 2 ;
P5 ( 4 ) ( x) = 120 ⋅ x ; P5 ( 5 ) ( x) = 120 ;
′ ″
P5 (0) = 2 P5 (0) = 4 ; P5 (0) = 0 ; P5 ( 3 ) (0) = −30 ;
P5 ( x) = 2 + 4 ⋅ x − 5 ⋅ x 3 + x 5 =
′ ″
P5 (0) P5 (0) 2 P5( 3 ) (0) 3 P5( 4 ) (0) 4 P5( 5 ) (0) 5
= P5 (0) + ⋅x+ ⋅x + ⋅x + ⋅x + ⋅x =
1! 2! 3! 4! 5!
4 0 − 30 3 0 4 120 5 4 − 30 3 120 5
= 2+ ⋅ x + ⋅ x2 + ⋅x + ⋅x + ⋅x = 2+ ⋅x+ ⋅x + ⋅x .
1! 2! 3! 4! 5! 1! 3! 5!
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Matemática 1 Anatolie Sochirca ACM DEETC ISEL
+ An −1 ⋅ ( x − a) n −1 + An ⋅ ( x − a) n , (5)
o desenvolvimento do polinómio em potencias de x − a .
′
Pn ( x) = A1 + 2 ⋅ A2 ⋅ ( x − a) + 3 ⋅ A3 ⋅ ( x − a) 2 + L +
+ (n − 1) ⋅ An −1 ⋅ ( x − a) n −2 + n ⋅ An ⋅ ( x − a) n −1 ;
″
Pn ( x) = 1 ⋅ 2 ⋅ A2 + 2 ⋅ 3 ⋅ A3 ⋅ ( x − a) + L + (n − 2) ⋅ (n − 1) ⋅ An −1 ⋅ ( x − a) n−3 +
+ (n − 1) ⋅ n ⋅ An ⋅ ( x − a ) n− 2 ;
Pn( 3 ) ( x) = 1 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 3 ⋅ A3 + L + (n − 3) ⋅ (n − 2) ⋅ (n − 1) ⋅ An −1 ⋅ ( x − a ) n − 4 +
+ (n − 2) ⋅ (n − 1) ⋅ n ⋅ An ⋅ ( x − a ) n −3 ;
M
Pn( n −1) ( x) = 1 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 3 ⋅ L ⋅ (n − 2) ⋅ (n − 1) ⋅ An −1 + 2 ⋅ 3 ⋅ L ⋅ (n − 2) ⋅ (n − 1) ⋅ n ⋅ An ⋅ ( x − a ) ;
Pn( n ) ( x) = 1 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 3 ⋅ L ⋅ (n − 2) ⋅ (n − 1) ⋅ n ⋅ An .
Portanto
′ ″
Pn (a ) P (a)
Pn ( x) = Pn (a ) + ⋅ ( x − a) + n ⋅ ( x − a) 2 + L +
1! 2!
c n −1 c
+ ⋅ ( x − a ) n −1 + n ⋅ ( x − a ) n ,
(n − 1) ! n!
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Matemática 1 Anatolie Sochirca ACM DEETC ISEL
f ′(c) f ′′(c)
Pn ( x) = f (c) + ⋅ ( x − c) + ⋅ ( x − c) 2 + L +
1! 2!
f ( n−1) (c) n −1 f ( n ) (c )
+ ⋅ ( x − c) + ⋅ ( x − c) n . (7)
(n − 1) ! n!
′ ″
Pn (c) = f (c) , Pn (c) = f ′(c) , Pn (c) = f ′′(c) , Pn ( 3 ) (c) = f ( 3)
(c ) ,
Pn ( 4 ) (c) = f (4)
(c ) , L L Pn ( n −1 ) (c) = f ( n −1)
(c) , Pn ( n ) (c) = f ( n)
(c) . (8)
O polinómio Pn (x) representa uma aproximação para a função f (x) e tem interesse
avaliar o resto
R( x) = f ( x) − Pn ( x) (9)
para diversos valores de x .
a) f (c) = P1 (c) ;
′
b) f ′(c) = P1 (c) .
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Matemática 1 Anatolie Sochirca ACM DEETC ISEL
Prova.
′
Levando em conta que f (c) = P1 (c) e f ′(c) = P1 (c) temos
R( x) f ( x) − P1 ( x) f ( x) − P1 ( x) − f (c) + P1 (c)
lim x − c = lim x−c
= l im
x−c
=
x→ c x→ c x→ c
f ( x ) − f (c ) P1 ( x) − P1 (c) ′
= l im
−
−
lim x−c
= f ′(c) − P1 (c) = 0 ,
x→ c
x c x→ c
isto é, R( x) = o( x − c) .
A generalização da afirmação 1 é:
f ′(c) f ′′(c)
f ( x ) = f (c ) + ⋅ ( x − c) + ⋅ ( x − c) 2 + L +
1! 2!
f ( n−1) (c) f ( n ) (c )
+ ⋅ ( x − c) n −1 + ⋅ ( x − c) n + Rn +1 ( x) . (10)
(n − 1) ! n!
A fórmula (10) permite substituir a função f (x) pelo polinómio Pn (x) com um grau
de precisão igual ao resto Rn +1 ( x) .
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Matemática 1 Anatolie Sochirca ACM DEETC ISEL
( x − c) n +1
Rn +1 ( x) = ⋅ Q( x) . (11)
(n + 1) !
e obtemos
f ′(c) f ′′(c)
f ( x ) = f (c ) + ⋅ ( x − c) + ⋅ ( x − c) 2 + L +
1! 2!
De (12) resulta que para x e c fixos a função Q(x) toma um valor determinado Q .
Na continuação, com x e c fixos, consideramos uma função auxiliar de variável t com
t compreendido entre c e x :
f ′(t ) f ′′(t )
F (t ) = f ( x) − f (t ) − ⋅ (x − t) − ⋅ (x − t) 2 − L −
1! 2!
f ( n −1) (t ) f ( n ) (t ) ( x − t ) n+1
− ⋅ ( x − t ) n −1 − ⋅ (x − t) n − ⋅ Q , (13)
(n − 1) ! n! (n + 1) !
(n)
f (t ) f ( n −1) (t ) ′ f ( n +1) (t ) ′
−
−
⋅ ( x − t ) n −1 +
−
(
⋅ ( x − t ) n −1 ) − ⋅ (x − t)n +
f ( n ) (t )
(⋅ (x − t)n )−
( n 1) ! ( n 1 ) ! n ! n !
′
(x − t)n
− ⋅ Q =
(n + 1) !
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Matemática 1 Anatolie Sochirca ACM DEETC ISEL
f ( n ) (t ) f ( n −1) (t ) f ( n +1) (t ) f ( n ) (t )
− ⋅ ( x − t ) n −1 + ⋅ (n − 1) ⋅ ( x − t ) n − 2 − ⋅ (x − t)n + ⋅ n ⋅ ( x − t ) n −1 +
(n − 1) ! (n − 1) ! n! n!
(n + 1) ⋅ ( x − t ) n f ( n +1) (t ) (x − t) n
+ ⋅Q = − ⋅ (x − t)n + ⋅Q.
(n + 1) ! n! n!
Portanto
f ( n+1) (t ) (x − t)n
F ′(t ) = − ⋅ (x − t) n + ⋅ Q . (14)
n! n!
A fórmula
f ′(c) f ′′(c)
f ( x ) = f (c ) + ⋅ ( x − c) + ⋅ ( x − c) 2 + L +
1! 2!
diz-se o polinómio de Taylor para função f (x) com o resto na forma de Lagrange.
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Matemática 1 Anatolie Sochirca ACM DEETC ISEL
( x − c) n +1
Rn +1 ( x) = ⋅f ( n +1)
(c + θ ⋅ ( x − c))
(n + 1) !
e o polinómio de Taylor para função f (x) com o resto na forma de Lagrange fica
f ′(c) f ′′(c)
f ( x ) = f (c ) + ⋅ ( x − c) + ⋅ ( x − c) 2 + L +
1! 2!
f ′(0) f ′′(0) 2
f ( x) = f (0) + ⋅x+ ⋅ x +L+
1! 2!
Nota 4.
► A fórmula de Taylor é utilizada para aproximar uma função por um
polinómio numa vizinhança de um ponto c ≠ 0 , onde a função é n + 1 vezes
diferenciável.
x x2 xn eθ ⋅x
e = 1+ +
x
+L+ + ⋅ x n +1 ,
1! 2 ! n ! (n + 1) !
eθ ⋅x
com R n +1 ( x) = ⋅ x n +1 e 0 < θ < 1 .
(n + 1) !
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Matemática 1 Anatolie Sochirca ACM DEETC ISEL
1
R n +1 ( x) < ⋅ x n +1 .
(n + 1) !
ex ex
R n +1 ( x) < ⋅ x n +1 = ⋅ x n +1 .
(n + 1) ! (n + 1) !
Porque
x n +1 x x x x x x x x x x
= ⋅ ⋅ ⋅L ⋅ ⋅ = ⋅ ⋅ ⋅L ⋅ ⋅ =
(n + 1) ! 1 2 3 n n +1 1 2 3 n n +1
x
Com x fixo temos que ∃ n * ∈ N tal que x < n * . Denotamos = q e levando em
n*
conta que 0 < q < 1 na continuação para n > n * obtemos
x x x x x x x x
= ⋅ ⋅ ⋅L⋅ * ⋅ * ⋅ * ⋅L ⋅ ⋅ ≤
1 2 3 n −1 n n +1 n n +1
*
x x x x x n −1 n − n* + 2
≤ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅L ⋅ * ⋅ q ⋅ q ⋅L⋅ q ⋅ q = ⋅ q .
1 2 3 n − 1 142 4 43
*
4 ( n *
− 1 ) !
n−n + 2
*
x n −1 *
Com x fixo é uma constante e q n − n + 2 tende para zero quando n → + ∞ .
(n − 1) !
*
Logo
1 ex
lim ⋅ x n +1 = 0 , lim ⋅ x n +1 = 0
n→+∞
(n + 1) ! n→+∞
(n + 1) !
eθ ⋅ x
e portanto lim ⋅ x n +1 = 0 .
n→+∞
(n + 1) !
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Matemática 1 Anatolie Sochirca ACM DEETC ISEL
1 1 1 3
e = 1+ + +L+ e R n +1 (1) <
1! 2! n! (n + 1) !
π
Porque f ( x) = sen x + n ⋅ temos:
(n)
2
f ( x) = senx , f ( 0) = 0 ;
π
f ′( x) = sen x + , f ′(0) = 1 ;
2
π
f ′′( x) = sen x + 2 ⋅ , f ′′(0) = 0 ;
2
π
f ( 3)
( x) = sen x + 3 ⋅ , f ( 3 ) ( 0) = − 1 ;
2
π
f ( 4)
( x) = sen x + 4 ⋅ , f ( 4 ) ( 0) = 0 ;
2
M M
π π
f (n)
( x) = sen x + n ⋅ , f (n)
(0) = sen n ⋅ ;
2 2
π π
f ( n +1)
( x) = sen x + (n + 1) ⋅ , f ( n +1)
(ξ ) = sen ξ + (n + 1) ⋅ .
2 2
x3 x5 x7 x9 xn x n +1 π
senx = x − + − + −L+ + ⋅ sen ξ + (n + 1) ⋅ .
3! 5 ! 7 ! 9 ! n ! (n + 1) ! 2
Porque
π
sen ξ + (n + 1) ⋅ ≤ 1
2
1
e como foi provado no exemplo 10 lim ⋅ x n +1 = 0 concluímos que
n→+∞
(n + 1) !
x n +1 π
lim Rn +1 ( x) = l im ⋅ sen ξ + (n + 1) ⋅ = 0
n→+∞ n→+∞
(n + 1) ! 2
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Matemática 1 Anatolie Sochirca ACM DEETC ISEL
porque
1 π 1 1 1
R7 (1) = ⋅ sen ξ + 7 ⋅ ≤ = ≤ = 0,001 .
7! 2 7 ! 5040 1000
► A fórmula de Maclaurin
x3 x4 π
senx = x − + ⋅ sen ξ + 4 ⋅
3! 4 ! 2
com o resto
x4 π
R4 ( x ) = ⋅ sen ξ + 4 ⋅
4! 2
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Matemática 1 Anatolie Sochirca ACM DEETC ISEL
x3 x3 x5
f ( x) = x ; f ( x) = x − ; f ( x) = x − + ;
3! 3! 5 !
x3 x5 x7 x3 x5 x7 x9
f ( x) = x − + − ; f ( x) = x − + − + .
3! 5 ! 7 ! 3! 5 ! 7 ! 9 !
π
( x) = ( cos x ) = cos x + n ⋅ temos:
(n) (n)
Porque f
2
f ( x) = cos x , f (0) = 1 ;
π
f ′( x) = cos x + , f ′(0) = 0 ;
2
π
f ′′( x) = cos x + 2 ⋅ , f ′′(0) = −1 ;
2
π
f ( 3)
( x) = cos x + 3 ⋅ , f ( 3)
( 0) = 0 ;
2
π
f ( 4)
( x) = cos x + 4 ⋅ , f ( 4 ) ( 0) = 1 ;
2
M M
π π
f (n)
( x) = c os x + n ⋅ , f (n)
(0) = cos n ⋅ ;
2 2
π π
f ( n +1)
( x) = cos x + (n + 1) ⋅ , f ( n +1)
(ξ ) = c os ξ + (n + 1) ⋅ .
2 2
x 2 x 4 x 6 x8 xn π x n +1 π
cosx = 1 − + − + −L+ ⋅ c os n ⋅ + ⋅ c os ξ + (n + 1) ⋅ .
2 ! 4 ! 6 ! 8! n! 2 (n + 1) ! 2
Porque
π
c os ξ + (n + 1) ⋅ ≤ 1
2
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Matemática 1 Anatolie Sochirca ACM DEETC ISEL
1
e como foi provado no exemplo 10 lim ⋅ x n +1 = 0 concluímos que
n→+∞
(n + 1) !
x n +1 π
lim Rn +1 ( x) = l im ⋅ cos ξ + (n + 1) ⋅ = 0
n→+∞ n→+∞
(n + 1) ! 2
x2 x2 x4 x2 x4 x6
f ( x) = 1 ; f ( x) = 1 − ; f ( x) = 1 − + ; f ( x) = 1 − + − ;
2! 2! 4! 2! 4! 6!
x 2 x 4 x 6 x8 x 2 x 4 x 6 x 8 x10
f ( x) = 1 − + − + ; f ( x) = 1 − + − + − .
2 ! 4 ! 6 ! 8! 2! 4 ! 6 ! 8! 10 !
Porque f (n)
( x) = m ⋅ (m − 1) ⋅ (m − 2) ⋅ L ⋅ (m − n + 2) ⋅ (m − n + 1) ⋅ x m− n temos:
f ( x) = x m , f (1) = 1 ;
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Matemática 1 Anatolie Sochirca ACM DEETC ISEL
f ′( x) = m ⋅ x m−1 , f ′(1 ) = m ;
f ′′( x) = m ⋅ (m − 1) ⋅ x m − 2 , f ′′(1 ) = m ⋅ (m − 1) ;
f ( 3) ( x) = m ⋅ (m − 1) ⋅ (m − 2) ⋅ x m−3 , f ( 3) (1 ) = m ⋅ (m − 1) ⋅ (m − 2) ;
M M
f (n)
( x) = m ⋅ (m − 1) ⋅ L ⋅ (m − n + 1) ⋅ x m− n , f (n)
(1) = m ⋅ (m − 1) ⋅ L ⋅ (m − n + 1) ;
f ( n +1 )
( x) = m ⋅ (m − 1) ⋅ L ⋅ (m − n) ⋅ x m− n −1 , f ( n +1)
(ξ ) = m ⋅ (m − 1) ⋅ L ⋅ (m − n) ⋅ ξ m− n +1 .
m ⋅ (m − 1) m ⋅ (m − 1) ⋅ (m − 2)
x m = 1 + m ⋅ ( x − 1) + ⋅ ( x − 1) 2 + ⋅ ( x − 1) 3 + L +
2! 3!
m ⋅ (m − 1) ⋅ L ⋅ (m − n + 1) m ⋅ (m − 1) ⋅ L ⋅ (m − n) m− n +1
+ ⋅ ( x − 1) n + ⋅ξ ⋅ ( x − 1) n +1 .
n! (n + 1) !
Em particular temos:
1
x−2 = 2
= 1 − 2 ⋅ ( x − 1) + 3 ⋅ ( x − 1) 2 − 4 ⋅ ( x − 1) 3 + 5 ⋅ ξ −4
⋅ ( x − 1) 4 .
x
1
► Com n = 3 e m = − a fórmula de Taylor em potências de x − 1 para a função
2
1
−
f ( x) = x 2
é:
1
− 1 1 3 5 35
x 2
= = 1− ⋅ ( x − 1) + ⋅ ( x − 1) 2 − ⋅ ( x − 1) 3 + ⋅ξ −4
⋅ ( x − 1) 4 .
x 2 8 16 128
1
► Com n = 3 e m = a fórmula de Taylor em potências de x − 1 para a função
2
1
f ( x) = x 2 é:
1
1 1 1 5
x 2 = x = 1+ ⋅ ( x − 1) − ⋅ ( x − 1) 2 + ⋅ ( x − 1) 3 − ⋅ξ −4
⋅ ( x − 1) 4 .
2 8 16 128
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Matemática 1 Anatolie Sochirca ACM DEETC ISEL
Realmente,
g ( n ) ( x) = m ⋅ (m − 1) ⋅ L ⋅ (m − n + 1) ⋅ x m − n , g ( n ) (0) = m ⋅ (m − 1) ⋅ L ⋅ (m − n + 1) ;
g ( n +1) ( x) = m ⋅ (m − 1) ⋅ L ⋅ (m − n) ⋅ x m − n −1 ,
g ( n +1) (ξ ) = m ⋅ (m − 1) ⋅ L ⋅ (m − n) ⋅ (ξ + 1) m− n+1 .
m ⋅ (m − 1) 2 m ⋅ (m − 1) ⋅ (m − 2) 3
( x + 1) m = 1 + m ⋅ x + ⋅x + ⋅ x +L+
2! 3!
m ⋅ (m − 1) ⋅ L ⋅ (m − n + 1) n m ⋅ (m − 1) ⋅ L ⋅ (m − n)
+ ⋅x + ⋅ (ξ + 1) m − n +1 ⋅ x n +1 .
n! (n + 1) !
Em particular temos:
1
( x + 1) − 2 = = 1 − 2 ⋅ x + 3 ⋅ x 2 − 4 ⋅ x 3 + 5 ⋅ (ξ + 1) − 4 ⋅ x 4 .
( x + 1) 2
1
1 −
► Com n = 3 e m = − a fórmula de Maclaurin para a função f ( x) = ( x + 1) 2 é:
2
1
− 1 1 3 5 35
( x + 1) 2
= = 1− ⋅ x + ⋅ x2 − ⋅ x3 + ⋅ (ξ + 1) − 4 ⋅ x 4 .
x +1 2 8 16 128
1
1
► Com n = 3 e m = a fórmula de Maclaurin para a função f ( x) = ( x + 1) 2 é:
2
1
1 1 1 5
( x + 1) = x + 1 = 1 +
2
⋅ x − ⋅ x2 + ⋅ x3 − ⋅ (ξ + 1) − 4 ⋅ x 4 .
2 8 16 128
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Matemática 1 Anatolie Sochirca ACM DEETC ISEL
1
f ′′( x) = − , f ′′(1 ) = −1 ;
x2
2 2!
f ( 3) ( x ) = = , f ( 3) ( 1 ) = 2 ! ;
x3 x3
(−1) 3 ⋅ 3! 3!
f ( 4) ( x) = 4
=− 4
, f ( 4) (1 ) = −3!;
x x
M M
(−1) n −1 ⋅ (n − 1) !
f (n)
( x) = n
, f (n)
(1) = (−1) n −1 ⋅ (n − 1) ! ;
x
(−1) n ⋅ n ! (−1) n ⋅ n !
f ( n +1 )
( x) = , f ( n +1)
(ξ ) = .
x n+1 ξn
f ( n ) (1) f ( n ) (ξ )
+ ⋅ ( x − 1) n + ⋅ ( x − 1) n =
n! n!
−1
⋅ ( x − 1) 2 + ! ⋅ ( x − 1) 3 + L +
1 2
= ⋅ ( x − 1) +
1! 2! 3!
(−1) n ⋅ n !
(−1) n −1 ⋅ (n − 1) ! ξn
+ ⋅ ( x − 1) + n
⋅ ( x − 1) n =
n! n!
( x − 1) 2 ( x − 1) 3 ( x − 1) 4 ( x − 1) n ( x − 1) n
= ( x − 1) − + − + L + (−1) n −1 ⋅ + (−1) n ⋅ .
2 3 4 n ξn
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Matemática 1 Anatolie Sochirca ACM DEETC ISEL
f ( x) = tg x ; f (0) = tg 0 = 0 ;
′
f ′( x) = (tg x ) =
1 1
f ′(0) = = 1;
c os 2 x c os 2 0
′
1 senx sen0
f ′′( x) = 2
= 2⋅ 3
; f ′′(0) = 2 ⋅ = 0;
c os x c os x c os 3 0
′
senx c osx ⋅ cos 3 x − senx ⋅ 3 ⋅ cos 2 x ⋅ (− senx)
f ( 3)
( x) = 2 ⋅
3
= 2⋅ =
cos x c os 6 x
′ ′ ′
f ( 4) 1 + 2 ⋅ sen 2 x
( x) = 2 ⋅
(
= 2 ⋅
) ( )(
1 + 2 ⋅ sen 2 x ⋅ c os 4 x − 1 + 2 ⋅ sen 2 x ⋅ cos 4 x
=
)
4
cos x c os 8 x
= 2⋅
( )
4 ⋅ sen x ⋅ c os 5 x + 1 + 2 ⋅ sen 2 x ⋅ 4 ⋅ c os 3 x ⋅ senx
=
c os 8 x
= 8⋅
(
sen x ⋅ c os 3 x ⋅ cos 2 x + 1 + 2 ⋅ sen 2 x)= 8 ⋅
(
sen x ⋅ c os 2 x + 1 + 2 ⋅ sen 2 x
=
)
cos 8 x c os 5 x
2 + sen 2 x 2 + sen 2ξ
= 8 ⋅ senx ⋅ ; f ( 4)
(ξ ) = 8 ⋅ senξ ⋅ ;
cos 5 x c os 5ξ
Portanto
1 f ( 4) (ξ ) 4
= x + ⋅ x3 + ⋅x , ξ entre 0 e x .
3 4!
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Matemática 1 Anatolie Sochirca ACM DEETC ISEL
Exemplo 16. Escrever a fórmula de Maclaurin para a função f ( x) = e senx com o resto
de ordem 4.
t t2 t3 1 1
et = 1 + + + = 1 + senx + ⋅ sen 2 x + ⋅ sen 3 x (exemplo 10).
1! 2 ! 3! 2 6
x3 x3
senx = x − = x− (exemplo 11).
3! 6
Portanto
2 3
x3 1 x3 1 x3
f ( x) = e senx
= 1+ x − + ⋅ x − + ⋅ x − =
6 2 6 6 6
x3 1 2 x4 x6 1 3 x5 x7 x9
= 1+ x − + ⋅ x − + + ⋅ x − + − =
6 2 3 36 6 2 12 216
1 2 x3 1 3 1 x4 x6 1 x5 x7 x9 1
= 1+ x + x − + x + ⋅ − + + ⋅ + − = 1 + x + x 2 + o( x 3 ) .
2 6 3 2 3 36 6 2 12 216 2
14 44444 424444444 3
o ( x3 )
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Matemática 1 Anatolie Sochirca ACM DEETC ISEL
e x + e− x − 2 ex −1− x
a) lim x2
; b) lim 1 − x − c os x
;
x→0 x→0
x2
−
− c os x 1
lim x ⋅ x − ctgx .
2
e 1
c) lim x ⋅ senx
3
; d)
x→0 x→0
e x + e− x − 2
a) lim x2
.
x→0
x2 x2 x2 x2
1 + x + + 1 − x + − 2 +
e x + e− x − 2 2 2 2 2 x2
lim = l im = l im = l im 2 = 1.
x→0 x2 x →0 x2 x→0 x2 x →0 x
ex −1− x
b) lim 1 − x − c os x
.
x→0
x2 x2
1 + x + − 1 − x x
ex −1− x 2 2 2
lim = l im = l im = l im = 0.
1 − x − cos x x x x2 x→0
2
x 3x 2 x→0 −
1
+
3x
x→0 x→0
1 − − − 1 − − +
2 8 2 2 8 2 8
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Matemática 1 Anatolie Sochirca ACM DEETC ISEL
x2
−
e − c os x
2
c) lim x ⋅ senx
3
.
x→0
x2
−
2
Escrevendo os polinómios de Taylor para as funções e , cos x até aos
termos de quarta ordem inclusivamente e para senx de primeira ordem obtemos:
x2 x4 x2 x4 x4 x4
−
x2 1 − + − 1 − + −
1 1
−
e − c os x
2
2 8 2 24 = 8 24 = 8 24 = 1 .
lim = l im lim x 4 lim 1 12
x→0 x ⋅ senx
3
x→0 x3 ⋅ x x→0 x→0
1
lim x ⋅ x − ctgx .
1
d)
x→0
1 1 c os x senx − x ⋅ cos x 0
lim x ⋅ x − ctgx = (∞ − ∞ ) = lim x ⋅ x − senx = lim
1 1
= =
x→0 x→0 x→0 x 2 ⋅ senx 0
x3 x2 x3 x3 x3
x − − x ⋅ 1 − x − − x +
6 2 6 2 = 3 =1.
= l im = l im l im
x →0 x ⋅x
2
x →0 x 3
x→0 x
3
3
32