IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 19, NO.
2, APRIL 2004
A New Artificial Treatment for the Reduction
of Resistance in Ground Electrode
Hugo E. Martínez, Edward L. Fuentealba, Luis A. Cisternas, Hector R. Galleguillos, Jorge F. Kasaneva, and
Osvaldo A. de la Fuente
Abstract—This study describes a resistance reduction additive
(RRA) for reducing and maintaining reduced resistance of ground
electrodes over time. The RRA employed was a mixture of inor-
ganic salts, some of which occur as residues from industrial min-
eral processing in Chile. Chemical characteristics of the mixture
are described, as well as results of measurements of electrical resis-
tance of ground electrodes over time with and without RRA treat-
ment. Measures are also given for current intensities and loss of
electrode mass in test electrodes buried below ground with RRA
and within cell containers having a specific capacity. Small scale
tests were made on the effects of impulse current in test cells con-
taining electrodes treated with the RRA.
Index Terms—Chemical analysis, corrosion, grounding,
grounding electrodes, resistance measurement.
I. INTRODUCTION
T HE objectives that are pursued in the construction of a
grounding system are several, and they obey different
reasons. The most important thing is to guarantee the people
security. However, to ensure good operation of the electric and
electronic system is also of great importance [1], [2]. From
the point of view of security, a grounding system must prevent
people from being subjected to dangerous electrical potential
differences [1]–[4]. Now, from the point of view of a good
operation in an electric and electronic system, the grounding
systems must complete high-priority functions, as shown in the
following [1]:
• stable tensions between active phases and grounding,
when a single-phase fault takes place in a power electric
system;
• in the event of fault to ground, to provide a low impedance
route;
• in the event of atmospheric discharges, to drive this great
energy to ground;
• establishment of a voltage reference level.
Manuscript received September 24, 2002. This work was supported under
Project PROIM “Industrial Minerals: New Opportunities for development of
the country,” University of Antofagasta–Chile.
H. E. Martínez and E. L. Fuentealba are with the Department of Elec-
trical Engineering, University of Antofagasta, Antofagasta, Chile (e-mail:
hmartinez@uantof.cl; efuentealba@uantof.cl).
L. A. Cisternas and H. R. Galleguillos are with the Department of Chem-
ical Engineering, University of Antofagasta, Antofagasta, Chile (e-mail: lcis-
ternas@uantof.cl; hgalleguillos@uantof.cl).
J. F. Kasaneva is with the Physics Department, University of Antofagasta,
Antofagasta, Chile (e-mail: jkasaneva@uantof.cl).
O. A. de la Fuente is with the Department of System Engineering, University
of Antofagasta, Antofagasta, Chile (e-mail: ofuentes@uantof.cl).
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TPWRD.2004.824760
0885-8977/04$20.00 © 2004 IEEE
601
There exist cases where the high resistivity of soil makes it dif-
ficult or even impossible to obtain low resistance values in the
construction of a ground electrode. For this reason, there are, at
present, natural and artificial means of modifying soils which
cover ground electrodes which have low resistance characteris-
tics. These include changing the nature of the overlying soil [1]
and covering it with natural materials, such as bentonite [5], or
artificial compounds, such as synthetic resins.
This report presents results of values from test-scale ground
electrodes with and without the application of current which
have been treated with a resistance reduction additive (RRA)
composed of raw materials and residual inorganic salts from
Chile. Test times ranged over periods somewhat over one year.
Although the result shown in this work only contains data be-
tween one or two years, similar results have observed for other
tests for time period of over four years. Both tests, with and
without application of current, were carried out at four locations
including Antofagasta, Rancagua, Chuquicamata, Maria Elena
nitrate deposit, and the town of Mejillones. Results are also pre-
sented on voltages and lightning current discharges in cells of
specific dimensions containing a hemispherical electrode cov-
ered with the test material mentioned above for the reduction of
resistance in ground electrode.
II. CHEMICAL CHARACTERIZATION OF THE TEST PRODUCT
The RRA used was the product of combining three types of
mixtures of inorganic salts, which are here termed MA, MB,
and MC, respectively. The following results were obtained in
analysis of each of these mixtures by X-ray diffraction using
a Siemens Co. model D5000 automatic computerized X-ray
diffractometer.
The mixture MA was composed primarily of halite (NaCl),
and in lesser proportions of bloedite [Na Mg SO H O] and
stevensite [montmorillonite group Ca Mg Si O OH
H O].
The mixture MB was primarily halite and montmoril-
lonite [Na Al Mg Si O OH nH O]. Its minor
compounds included huntite [Mg Ca CO ], ankerite
[Ca Fe Mg CO ], and calcite (CaCO ).
Inorganic salt mixture MC was composed primarily
of halite, with minor fractions including gismondine
(CaAl Si O H O), ankerite, diaspora, hanskite
[Kna CO SO Cl], Montmorillonite, and saponite
[Mg Si Al O OH H O].
Following X-ray diffraction analysis of qualitative compo-
sition, quantitative evaluation was done for some of the more
important elements and compounds present in the salt mixtures.
602
TABLE I
CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF INORGANIC MIXTURES
TABLE II
MEASUREMENT OF ACIDITY IN THE RRA
TABLE III
MEASURES OF RESISTIVITY IN THE CELL
Results of chemical analyses are listed in Table I. Determina-
tion of cations was made using atomic absorption spectroscopy
(AA) using a Varian Co. Model 220FS instrument. Chlorides
and carbonates were analyzed volumetrically and sulfates by
gravimetry.
Elemental analyses were converted to compositions by
minerological substance using the “Minerology Module” of
HSC Chemistry for Windows software [8]. The results are a
“best estimate,” given that several solutions to the problem
exist. The proximate composition of mixture MA was 70%
halite, 26% bloedite, and 4% stevensite. The MB mixture
contained about 85% gismondine, 12% ankerite, and 3% halite,
and the MC mixture was about 64% huntite, 35% halite, and
1% montmorillonite.
Table II compares the results of pH measurement [6], [7] on
a specific quantity of the RRA with that of a soil sample from
the II Region. This measurement is also given for three different
weights of RRA (1, 2, and 3 g) in a constant volume of distilled
water.
Determination of resistivity of the RRA was done in a
cell measuring 10 10 10 cm, containing copper-plate
electrodes. Results of the resistivity tests are given in Table III.
Based on the average resistivity results from above, a value
was obtained of 0.22 - . A comparable result reported in [7]
was 0.23 - at 23 C.
It is important to indicate that the resistivity value can be fur-
ther lowered by altering the proportions of raw materials and
salts in the composition of the RRA described above.
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 19, NO. 2, APRIL 2004
Fig. 1. Placement of test electrodes in soils of the University of Antofagasta.
III. TESTS OF ELECTRODES WITHOUT APPLICATION
OF CURRENT
Test electrodes consisted of copper rods (pikes) 1 m in length
and 5/8 inches in diameter. These were buried horizontally in a
ditch about 0.5 m wide and 0.6 m deep, where tests were carried
out without injection or circulation of current.
A. II Region, Antofagasta
After having carried out various tests during 1997 [2], [3]
and carrying out definitive determinations on the proportions
of elements which formed the RRA, six test electrodes were
installed on the terrain of the University of Antofagasta, where
soil resistivity was about 3000 -m . Electrodes were installed
about 4 m apart.
Fig. 1 presents a schematic diagram of the positions of the six
sample electrodes.
Sample RA was an electrode installed directly in the soil with
no RRA. Sample RB was an electrode improved using a re-
sistance reduction additive sold widely in the electrotechnical
market, treated with 25 l of tap water. Samples RC, RD, and RE
were electrodes to which had been added 7, 14, and 21 kg of the
RRA described above, treated, respectively, with 25, 50, and 60
l of tap water. Sample RF was a test electrode which received
a single application of 14 kg of the RRA over 20 cm of earth
which covered it and was then treated with 25 l of tap water.
The resistance of the tap water is 10,4 -m
Fig. 2 shows the comparative values of resistance in the six
ground electrodes as a function of time.
Fig. 3 presents graphs of Fig. 2, reducing the scale of the
ground resistances of the ground electrodes in order to better
emphasize the development of resistance over time in the test
electrodes of the experimental ground electrodes which were
artificially enhanced with RRA. It can be seen that the ground
electrode with the least resistance was that having the largest
quantity of RRA (RE), followed in descending order by RD and
RC, and that the values remained practically fixed over time.
B. VI Region, Rancagua
Similar testing was carried out in Chile’s VI Region, where
the soils are of an agricultural type. The sites measured were lo-
cated near the towns of Malloa and Rengo. In Malloa, a 1.5-m
rod (pike) 5/8 inches in diameter was installed, the resistance of
which (unimproved) was about 43 . This was improved artifi-
cially by the addition of 7 kg (RC) of RRA. The test electrode
placed at Rengo had a resistance of 383 prior to improvement.
It was treated with 14 kg (RD) of RRA. This test region was af-
fected by unusual climatic conditions during the experimental
MARTÍNEZ et al.: A NEW ARTIFICIAL TREATMENT FOR THE REDUCTION OF RESISTANCE IN GROUND ELECTRODE
Fig. 2. Resistances of six ground electrode test electrodes without current
circulation.
Fig. 3. Enlargement of Fig. 5.
period (May–October 2000), experiencing extreme drought fol-
lowed by extreme rains.
Table IV lists the results obtained with the preceding ground
electrodes, carried out by personnel of Electric Company of the
Compañia General de Electricidad (CGE). It is important to
state here that these results confirmed that RRA was insoluble.
Fig. 4 shows the graphs of ground electrodes as a function of
time, from Table IV. According to the results obtained in the VI
Region of Chile, there was a decrease in resistance to ground
with an increase in the quantity of RRA.
C. II Region, Chuquicamata, Maria Elena, and Mejillones
Three test electrodes were installed, using 14 kg (RD) of
RRA. The resistance in the ground electrode without applica-
tion of current in Chuquicamata, Maria Elena, and Mejillones
is shown in Figs. 5–7.
603
Fig. 4. Measures of resistance in ground electrodes in Region VI, Chile.
Fig. 5. Resistance of a ground electrode without current circulation at
Chuquicamata.
TABLE IV
MEASURES OF RESISTANCE IN GROUND ELECTRODES IN REGION VI, CHILE
IV. TEST USING CIRCULATION OF RESIDUAL CURRENT
Sets of three test electrodes were installed as described above,
using 14 kg (RD) of RRA, at each of two mining centers in
northern Chile, II Region. One set was installed at the Chuquica-
mata copper mine and another at the Maria Elena nitrate de-
posits. A third set was installed at the port of Mejillones. Low
levels of current were applied to each of these electrodes through
a dimmer switch (domestic lighting type) to simulate a residual
current. Electrodes were recovered at 4-mo intervals in order
604 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 19, NO. 2, APRIL 2004

Fig. 6. Resistance of a ground electrode without current circulation at Maria Fig. 7. Resistance of a ground electrode without current circulation at
Elena. Mejillones.

to determine the loss of mass of the electrodes due to corro-

sion. This procedure was also carried out on three electrodes at
the University of Antofagasta using the above methods with 7,
14, and 21 kg of RRA (RC, RD, and RE) , plus low-level fixed
current.
It should be noted that the Chuquicamata and Maria Elena
sites are located in the Atacama desert which is exceedingly dry
and has intense solar radiation.
The schematic diagram presented in Fig. 8 shows the circuit
used to circulate the electric current in each of the grounding Fig. 8. Scheme of introduction of ground current to test electrodes.
test systems. The measure of the resistance, in agreement with
Fig. 8, is made through the quotient among the voltage, re-
garding the neutral, of the current feed and the current at the
beginning of the electrode.

A. Chuquicamata

Fig. 9 shows the variation in resistances of the ground

electrode of the three electrodes placed at the interior of the
Chuquicamata mine. Sample R3CC showed high values for
resistance as the RRA had been incorrectly placed at initiation.
However, the remaining two electrodes increased in value
resistance about 6 mo after installation. In order to determine
the effect of adding water, on November 10, 2000, samples 1
and 2 were treated with 40 l tap water. It was observed (with
surprise) that in sample 1, the resistance decreased from 3194
to 102 over a period of 15 min and remained at this level
for over two weeks. Sample 2 did not respond as quickly, but
over a period of two weeks, the ground resistance decreased
from 7307 to 9.6 . Fig. 10 shows the curves from Fig. 9
with a reduced scale on the resistance axis. The test electrode
recovered for mass determination (R3CC) which initially
weighed 1132.58 g, weighed 1130.98 g after 4 mo, suggesting Fig. 9. Resistance of a ground electrode with current circulation at
the loss of 0.4 g of the electrode mass per month. Chuquicamata.
MARTÍNEZ et al.: A NEW ARTIFICIAL TREATMENT FOR THE REDUCTION OF RESISTANCE IN GROUND ELECTRODE
Fig. 10. Enlargement of Fig. 9.
Fig. 11. Variation in resistances of ground electrodes at Maria Elena.
B. Maria Elena
Variation in resistance of the ground electrodes for three elec-
trodes installed at the Maria Elena nitrate deposits is shown in
Fig. 11. Sample R3CC from this site had also been incorrectly
installed, resulting in a high resistance value compared to the
other two electrodes. Fig. 12 shows the development of resis-
tance over time of the ground electrodes. The electrode recov-
ered was R3CC; at installation, its weight was 1211.34 g, and
after 4 mo, its weight was 1119.40 g, suggesting a loss of mass
of 22.98 g/mo. This value, as the result for Chuquicamata, can
be considered low. A linear approximation gives 100 years to
complete mass lost.
605
Fig. 12. Enlargement of Fig. 11.
Fig. 13. Current in three electrodes installed in soils of the University of
Antofagasta.
C. Antofagasta
In Figs. 13 and 14, the results of magnitudes of intensities
of current and resistance of ground electrodes consisting of the
three electrodes with RRA treatments (7, 14, and 21 kg) are
shown installed on the terrain of the University of Antofagasta,
similar to RC, RD, and RE of Fig. 1. The installation date was
August 31, 1999.
D. Mejillones
Fig. 15 shows the variations in the resistance of ground elec-
trodes consisting of three electrodes placed at the Mejillones
substation of the EDELNOR electric company. Sample R3CC
from this site had also been incorrectly installed, explaining its
606 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 19, NO. 2, APRIL 2004

Fig. 16. Record of voltage waves and current in an electrode of the ground
Fig. 14. Resistances of ground electrodes in three electrodes in soils of the electrode type treated with RRA.
University of Antofagasta treated with 7, 14, and 21 kg of RRA.

Fig. 17. Cell used for testing impulse current.

TABLE V
RESISTANCE OF THE HEMISPHERICAL ELECTRODE WITH INDUSTRIAL
FREQUENCY VOLTAGE RMS

Fig. 15. Variation in resistances of ground electrodes at Mejillones.

high value compared to the other two electrodes. The recovered

electrode from this site was R3CC which, prior to installation,
weighed 1120.04 g, and after 4 mo weighed 1117.43 g, sug-
gesting a loss of electrode mass of 0.65 g/mo. Fig. 16 shows
the results of waveform tension applied and current circulated
through the electrodes at the sites mentioned above.
V. TESTS WITH IMPULSE CURRENT
In this test, the test electrode was in the form of a hemisphere
with a radius of 2.51 cm. The hemisphere is placed in a copper
cell containing the RRA.
Fig. 17 shows the dimensions of the cell and the placement
of the RRA. First, the resistance of the electrode is measured
at a frequency voltage root mean square (rms) of 50 Hz. These
results are given in Table V. Subsequently, the average resis-
tance of the electrode measured within the RRA at industrial
frequency voltage was about 1.35 .
Tests were later carried out with impulse current of 50/200 ,
with negative polarity on the ground electrode described above.
The results are shown in Table VI.
Fig. 18 shows one of the records of voltage and current in
the tests carried out at the High Voltage Laboratory of the
MARTÍNEZ et al.: A NEW ARTIFICIAL TREATMENT FOR THE REDUCTION OF RESISTANCE IN GROUND ELECTRODE
TABLE VI
IMPULSE TESTS
Fig. 18. Record of voltage and current in impulse test.
Department of Electrical Engineering of the University of
Chile, Santiago.
Results in Table VI suggest that the was the most
representative value, which showed a final averaged value of
0.89 .
VI. CONCLUSION
• A resistance reduction additive (RRA) was developed
from natural resources and inorganic salt residues ob-
tained from mining activity in the Antofagasta Region
of Chile, which allowed reduction of resistance and
extended the life of electrical ground electrodes.
• The RRA developed for the ground electrodes was not
highly corrosive, as ground electrodes treated with the ad-
ditive showed a less than 1 g of loss in mass per month
without the presence of circulating current.
• This additive is recommended for use in ground electrodes
in both neutral ground or service soils based on observa-
tions that in ground electrodes maintained with circulating
current for periods of over a year, there was rapid response
in lowering their resistance upon treating them with water.
• In insulating soils in protection ground also without circu-
lating currents, the RRA maintained its resistance value
for periods greater than a year without the addition of
water.
• The product developed showed 34% less resistance to im-
pulse current (out standard) with respect to the industrial
frequency voltage.
607
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors thank the High Voltage Laboratory of the
Department of Electrical Engineering of the Universidad
de Chile. They also thank Codelco Chile Chuquicamata,
EDELNOR Electric Company, SQM Chemical Company, and
CGE Electrical Company.
REFERENCES
[1] A. Barachini, “Tratamiento de los electrodos para tomas de tierra por
intermedio de procedimientos artificiales,” Revista Electrotécnica Ar-
gentina, Jan./Feb. 1982.
[2] H. Martínez, “Nuevo procedimiento que reduce artificialmente la
resistencia de las puestas a tierra en suelos de alta resistividad,” in I
Conferencia Internacional del Área Andina del IEEE, Isla Margarita,
Venezuela, Sept. 8–10, 1999.
[3] , “Tratamiento alternativo artificial que reduce y mantiene las re-
sistencias de puesta a tierra de suelos con alta resistividad,” in Proc.
XIII Congreso Chileno de Ingeniería Eléctrica, Universidad de Santiago,
Chile, Nov. 8–12, 1999.
[4] P. Ortuondo and S. Navarro, “Métodos para mejoramiento de puesta a
tierra en terrenos de alta resistividad,” Endesa Chile, Revista Electrotéc-
nica Argentina, 1976.
[5] W. R. Jones, “Bentonite rods assure ground rod installation in problem
soil,” IEEE Trans. Power App. Syst., vol. PAS-99, pp. 1343–1346,
July/Aug. 1980.
[6] “Soil Quality. Determination of pH,” Std., ISO 10 390, 1994.
[7] “Soil Quality. Determination of Specific Electrical Conductivity,” Std.,
ISO 111 265, 1994.
[8] Outokumpu HSC Chemistry for Windows, Versión 4.0, User’s Guide,
Outokumpu Research Oy, Finland, 1999.
Hugo E. Martinez was born in 1953. He received the B.S. degree in electrical
engineering from Technical University of Chile, Santiago, Chile, the M.Sc. de-
gree in electrical engineering from the University of Chile, Santiago, Chile, the
B.S. degree in electrical engineering from Technical University of Chile, and
the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Universidad Politécnica of
Madrid, Madrid, Spain.
His research interests include grounding systems and polluted insulators.
Dr. Martinez is a member of IEEE Chilean Society and CIGRE.
Edward L. Fuentealba was born in 1972 in Tomé, Chile. He received the B.S.
degree in electrical engineering with a minor in industrial engineering from the
University of Antofagasta, Antofagasta, Chile.
Currently, he is an Assistant Professor in the Electrical Engineering Depart-
ment, University of Antofagasta, Antofagasta, Chile. His current research area
is electrical power systems.
Luis A. Cisternas was born in 1961. He received the B.S. degree in chemical
engineering from the Catholic University of the North, Antofagasta, Chile,
and the Ph.D. degree in chemical engineering from the University of Wis-
consin–Madison.
Currently, he is a Professor in the Chemical Engineering Department, Univer-
sity of Antofagasta, Antofagasta, Chile. His current interests areas are processes
design and industrial minerals applications.
Dr. Cisternas is a member of American Institute of Chemical Engineers
(AIChE).
Hector R. Galleguillos was born in 1954 in Pedro de Valdivia, Chile. He re-
ceived the B.S. degree in chemical engineering from the Catholic University of
the North, Antofagasta, Chile, and the Ph.D. degree in chemistry from the Uni-
versity of Laguna, Laguna, Spain.
Currently, he is an Associate Professor in the Chemical Engineering Depart-
ment, University of Antofagasta, Antofagasta, Chile. He has been involved in
research on thermodynamic of electrolyte solutions and industrial minerals.
Dr. Galleguillos is a member of Sociedad Iberoamericana de Electroquímica
(SIBAE).
608
Jorge F. Kasaneva was born in 1952. He received the B.S. degree in physics
from the University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain and the B.S. degree in
electronic engineering from the Catholic University of the North, Antofagasta,
Chile, and the Ph.D. degree in physics from the University of Barcelona,
Barcelona, Spain, in 1990.
Currently, he is an Associate Professor of physics at the University of Antofa-
gasta, Antofagasta, Chile. He has been involved in a research project on material
science.
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 19, NO. 2, APRIL 2004
Osvaldo A. de la Fuente was born in 1969 in Santiago, Chile. He received the
B.S. degree with double majors in industrial engineering and mines engineering
from the University of Chile, Santaigo, Chile, in 1994 and 1995, respectively.
Currently, he is an Assistant Professor in the Industrial Engineering De-
partment, University of Antofagasta, Antofagasta, Chile. His current research
interest is minerals economics.