According to the Ancient Egyptian tradition, voiced by the Kinglists,  

Herodotos and Manetho, the 1st Dynasty was founded by a king

namedMeni, or, in Greek, Menes. The same tradition has credited
Menes with many deeds, among them the conquest of the Nile delta
(Lower Egypt) thus unifying Upper and Lower Egypt; the founding
of Memphisas the united country's new capital; the building of dams
and the founding of many new cults and temples.

There has been a lot of debate as to the identity and even the
existence of this seemingly legendary king, as the archaeological
record does not mention any king of that name. The basis of this
problem lies in the royal titulary and its evolution. The oldest known The presence of a sign
sources that mention a king only refer to him using his Horus-name. group looking like a Nebti-
From the Old Kingdom on, however, kings would be identified by name on the Naqada Label
their Prenomen and/or theirNomen. As the Kinglist tradition was has led many Egyptologists
to believe that Menes is to
based on these later additions to the royal titulary, the chroniclers had be equated with the Horus
to come up with a Prenomen for the Early Dynastic Kings. Although Aha (more...).
from the reign of the Horus Den on, they often took the kings' Nebti-
names as their Prenomen, the relationship between the names in the
Kinglists and those mentioned on the archaeological sources is not
always clear. This is the case for all kings preceding the Horus Den,
the first four kings of the 1st Dynasty.

Several sources have been interpreted as providing the link between a

Horus-name and the name Men(es), but every interpretation is
questionable at the very least. The Naqada Label was once believed
to show that Men(es) was the Nebti-name of the Horus Aha. The
absence of any further Nebti-names during the reigns of Aha and his
two successors, however, makes this interpretation unlikely.

The interpretation of a type of seal combing a Horus-name with some

additional hieroglyphic signs as a Prince's Seal, which would show
that the Horus Narmer had a son named Men(es), is too far-fetched to
be taken serious. The additional signs on the seal need not per
definition refer to a name and even if they do, this name can have
belonged to any high official or member of the ruling elite.

The archaeological sources have not allowed us either to relate any of

the deeds traditionally credited to Menes, to one single
archaeologically attested king. Several of these deeds actually belong
to the repertoire of the ideal king who was supposed to ensure the
regular flow of the floods by building dams, to appease the gods by
creating cults for them, to destroy Egypt's enemies, ...
The Narmer Palette has long been interpreted as evidence that the
HorusNarmer was the one who conquered the Nile delta and united
Upper and Lower Egypt. Indeed, Narmer is shown wearing the White
Crown, traditionally associated with Upper Egypt, while striking
down an enemy identified as living in the marsh-lands (image to the
left). On the other side of the Palette, Narmer wears the Red Crown,
traditionally associated with Lower Egypt (the Nile delta), while
inspecting the bodies of decapitated enemies.

A mace-head shows Narmer wearing the Red Crown during a census

in Lower Egypt. This representation has often been viewed as further
evidence that Narmer seized control on this part of the country and
imposed his authority on it.
Narmer's presumed predecessor, the Horus Ka (or Sekhen), 
however, levied taxes in the Nile delta and must therefore have had at
least partial control over this part of the country. The mace-head of a
king identified as 'Scorpion', assumedly a predecessor or perhaps a
contemporary of Narmer, has also been brought into the debate, as
one reconstruction might show that 'Scorpion' too may have worn
both the White and the Red Crowns.
The assumption that king's before Narmer may have ruled over a
united Egypt, and their tentative identification of Menes as the Horus
Aha, has led several authors to believe that there was a Dynasty
'0' before the rule of Menes. This hypothetical dynasty would have
been composed of 'Scorpion', Ka, 'Mouth' and Narmer. 'Scorpion',
however, has only been attested at Hierakonpolis and 'Mouth' may
not even have been a king at all.

It must also be noted that the identification of Menes as the Horus

Aha is not supported by any evidence and that the Red Crown may
initially have been of Upper Egyptian origin before it became the
Detail from the Macehead
symbol of Lower Egypt, at the latest during the early 1st Dynasty. A of 'Scorpion', showing the
pot-shard found at Naqada in Upper Egypt and dated several king with the White Crown
generations before the reign of Narmer bears the representation of the (more...).
Red Crown. This is now believed to be an indication that the Red
Crown was of Upper Egyptian origin.

But perhaps to learn more about the beginning of the 1st Dynasty, we
should first have a look at its end. A palace vessel found underneath
the Step Pyramid of the Horus Netjerikhet at Saqqara lists the Nebti-
names of four kings. These names correspond well to the last four
kings of Manetho's 1st Dynasty.
 
  
A stone vessel found at
Saqqara lists the Nebti-
names of the 4 last kings of
the 1st Dynasty.

 
From other archaeological sources, we know that these four kings   
correspond to the Horuses Den, Anedjib, Semerkhet and Qa'a
respectively. It is thus safe to conclude that these four
archaeologically attested kings correspond with the last four kings of
Manetho's 1st Dynasty.

The next clue to the identification of Menes and a confirmation of the

chronology of the 1st Dynasty is provided by two seals found in 1985
and 1995 at the royal cemetery at Umm el-Qa'ab. The first, dated to
the reign of the Horus Den, lists the kings Narmer, Aha, Djer, Djet
and Den. The list ends with the mention of the royal
mother Meretneith, the mother of Den who took up regency of the
country during Den's childhood. The names of the first three kings in
the list are preceded by the name of the god Khentamentiu, the
protector of the cemetery.
 

The second seal is dated to the reign of Qa'a, the last king of the 1st   
Dynasty. It starts with Khentamentiu and then lists Qa'a, Semerkhet,
Anedjib, Den, Djet, Djer, Aha and Narmer. The royal mother
Meretneith is no longer included, probably because her regency was
no longer viewed as an independent rule.
 
What makes these two seals so important is the fact that, if placed in   
chronological order, they both start with Narmer. With Narmer's
predecessor Ka also buried at the cemetery, this can only mean that
later generations considered Narmer as an important king, important
enough to make him head the list of kings. This view is confirmed by
the fact the the oldest royal name found on the vessels underneath
the Step-Pyramid of Djoser at Saqqara was Narmer's. It is also
important to note that the second seal lists the same number of kings
as the traditional Kinglists and Manetho.

Our knowledge of the history of the 1st Dynasty itself is, because of
its remoteness in time and the lack of clear written sources, fairly
limited. The few sources we have are hard to interpret and have often
led to ambiguous or even contradictory conclusions.

Before the reign of Narmer, the local rulers of Thinis, located near
Abydos in Upper Egypt, already appear to have had large parts of the
country, including at least parts of the Nile delta, under their control.
A ruler several generations before him had intense contacts with the
region of Bubastis, in the south-western Delta. The precise nature of
these contacts is not known. The Horus Ka, Narmer's presumed
predecessor, levied taxes in the Nile delta. If there ever was a
conquest of the Nile Delta by an Upper Egyptian monarchy, it had
occurred long before Narmer's time.
There may have been a rival dynasty based at Hierakonpolis, in the  
south of Upper Egypt during Narmer's reign.  A king known
as 'Scorpion' is only attested at Hierakonpolis. From a stylistic point
of view, his mace-head would belong to about the same time as the
Horus Narmer. At the latest during Narmer's reign, the region of
Hierakonpolis was added to the territory of the Thinite dynasty. In
view of the different animals on the 'Cities Palette', it is also possible
that this 'Scorpion' was also identified by other animals, perhaps,
even Narmer's catfish. If the latter assumption is correct, then
'Scorpion' may have been none other than Narmer himself! The 'Cities Palette', palette
Narmer is shown on his palette and other sources as a warrior king. dated to the early 1st
Dynasty, or perhaps before,
The extent of his military campaigns is, however, not certain. The shows the founding of
palette shows him victorious over a people living in a marshland and several cities by a king who
it is tempting to associate this with the Nile delta. If the interpretation is symbolised by different
animals, among them a
of some signs on the palette as the name of the Mareotis region is scorpion, a lion and a
indeed correct, the palette may refer to some military activity in the falcon.
eastern delta.

There may have been a brief regency by queen Neithhotep,

presumably Narmer's (principal) wife, at the beginning of Aha's
reign. Her name was sometimes written within a serekh, which could
indicate that she had royal power. One document shows her name, in
a serekh, behind the name of Aha. This is the traditional position for
the royal mother and may indeed confirm her regency. This might
suggest that Aha was but an infant when he inherited Narmer's
empire. Neithhotep was buried in an impressive tomb at Naqada, a
surprising location if one knows that the other members of the 1s
Dynasty were buried at Umm el-Qa'ab.

Aha is also the first king who may have had some of his servants
buried with him, in subsidiary tombs next to his own. This
experiment in absolutism was to last until the end of the 1st Dynasty.
Two sources may also point at the ritual sacrifice of humans during
this period. Another indication to the absolutism of royal power
during the 1st Dynasty has been found on the island of Elephantine,
near the modern-day city of Aswan. A military stronghold, intended
to keep the Nubians out of Egypt, was built on the island,
overshadowing a nearby local temple.
 
Den's reign too started with a regency by his mother, the queen  
Meretneith. Her name is attested on several sources, written within
theserekh showing that she had royal power. She was honoured with
an important tomb at the royal cemetery at Umm el-Qa'ab. Den at
least fought one battle against the "east", presumably some Bedouin
in the eastern desert. His reign is also marked by reforms in the
administration and by the addition of a second title, the Nebti-name,
to the royal titulary.

According to Manetho, a very great calamity befell Egypt during the

reign of Semerkhet, the penultimate king of the 1st Dynasty. This has
often been interpreted as that his reign may have been illegitimate.
His name is, however, mentioned on the seal listing all 1st Dynasty
kings and in the Kinglists.

Qa'a was the last king who appears to have had several of Den striking down a foe. His
his retainers buried with him, a practice that seems to have been Horus-name is written in
introduced during the earlier part of the 1st Dynasty by Aha. The fact front of him, in the serekh.
that Qa'a's successors abandoned this exercise in absolutism may
indicate a change in the royal ideology or in the religious beliefs.
That Qa'a's reign marked the end of an era is also shown by the move
of the burial grounds of his successors from Umm el-Qa'ab in Middle
Egypt to Saqqara, near Memphis. These changes may have prompted
Manetho to consider Qa'a as the last king of the 1st Dynasty.

The mention of a Horus-Ba (?) in some rare inscriptions believed to

date to this era hints at some upheaval during the reign of Qa'a or at
the end of it. It is, however, not clear whether Horus-Ba was another
name used by Qa'a, or the name of an obscure king. The name of
Qa'a's successor, Hotepsekhemwi, meaning "the two powerful ones
are at peace", is sometimes interpreted as an indication that this king
reunited a divided country. On the other hand, Hotepsekhemwi did
bury Qa'a, which means that he was Qa'a's immediate successor. It
would thus seem unlikely that Qa'a's death was followed by any
turmoil.

The table below lists the kings that are placed in the 1st Dynasty.
  Name Manetho Kinglists Dates
No dates can be
Narmer Menes Meni given for the
individual kings of
  Aha Athôtis Teti / Itet the 1st Dynasty.

  Djer Kenkenês Iti

  Djet Uenephês Itiu(i)

  Den Usaphaidos Semti / Septi

  Anedjib Miebidos Merbapen

  Semerkhet Semempsês Semsem

  Qa'a Ubienthês Qebeh(u)