2‐ Compare and contrast the structure of eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells.

3‐ Define molecular "zip codes" and explain how they function.

4‐ Describe the structural and functional importance of the cytoskeleton.
5‐ Summarize how substances move into and out of cells through the
endomembrane system.
6‐ Explain how dynamic cell structure determines cell function.

Chapter 7: The Cell

1- Describe the main differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.

1. * Eukaryotic cells have a true nucleus, bound by a double membrane. Prokaryotic cells have
no nucleus. The purpose of the nucleus is to sequester the DNA-related functions of the big eukaryotic
cell into a smaller chamber, for the purpose of increased efficiency. This function is unnecessary for
the prokaryotic cell, because its much smaller size means that all materials within the cell are
relatively close together. Of course, prokaryotic cells do have DNA and DNA functions. Biologists
describe the central region of the cell as its "nucleoid" (-oid=similar or imitating), because it's pretty
much where the DNA is located. But note that the nucleoid is essentially an imaginary "structure."
There is no physical boundary enclosing the nucleoid. 

2. Eukaryotic DNA is linear; prokaryotic DNA is circular (it has no ends). 

3. Eukaryotic DNA is complexed with proteins called "histones," and is organized into
chromosomes; prokaryotic DNA is "naked," meaning that it has no histones associated with it, and it
is not formed into chromosomes. Though many are sloppy about it, the term "chromosome" does
not technically apply to anything in a prokaryotic cell. A eukaryotic cell contains a number of
chromosomes; a prokaryotic cell contains only one circular DNA molecule and a varied assortment of
much smaller circlets of DNA called "plasmids." The smaller, simpler prokaryotic cell requires far
fewer genes to operate than the eukaryotic cell. 

4. Both cell types have many, many ribosomes, but the ribosomes of the eukaryotic cells are
larger and more complex than those of the prokaryotic cell. Ribosomes are made out of a special
class of RNA molecules (ribosomal RNA, or rRNA) and a specific collection of different proteins. A
eukaryotic ribosome is composed of five kinds of rRNA and about eighty kinds of proteins.
Prokaryotic ribosomes are composed of only three kinds of rRNA and about fifty kinds of protein. 

5. The cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells is filled with a large, complex collection of organelles, many
of them enclosed in their own membranes; the prokaryotic cell contains no membrane-bound
organelles which are independent of the plasma membrane. This is a very significant difference, and
the source of the vast majority of the greater complexity of the eukaryotic cell. There is much more
space within a eukaryotic cell than within a prokaryotic cell, and many of these structures, like the
nucleus, increase the efficiency of functions by confining them within smaller spaces within the huge
cell, or with communication and movement within the cell. 

6. Eukaryotic cells are the largest cells, while Prokaryotic cells are smaller than Eukaryotic cells.
A eukartotic cell is about 10 times bigger than a prokaryotic cell. 

7. Eukaryotic cells either have a plasma membrane or a cell wall in addition to the plasma
membrane; prokaryotic cells have a plasma membrane in addition to a bacterial cell wall
 Prokaryotic cells:

 Most primitive, earliest form of life

 Do not have a pre-defined nucleus
 Chromosomes are dispersed in the cytoplasm
 Contain no membrane-bound organelles
 Have circular chromosomes and lack histone proteins
 Most metabolically diverse
 Small - typically 0.2-2.0 micrometers in diameter
 Have a primitive cytosketetal structures or don't have a cytoskeleton at all
 Smaller (70S) ribosomes
 Don't undergo meiosis but reproduce sexually by the transfer of DNA fragments through
conjugation

Eukaryotic cells:

 More complex, evolved organsims

 Contain true nuclei in which chromosomes are compacted as chromatin
 Contain membrane-bound organelles
 Have linear DNA and contain histone proteins
 Larger - typically 10-100 micrometers in diameter
 Have a complex cytosketeton
 Larger (80S) ribosom
 Reproduce sexually with the use of meiosis

a. Explain what structures are common between all cells.

 1. DNA, the genetic material contained in one or more chromosomes and located in a
nonmembrane bound nucleoid region in prokaryotes and a membrane-bound nucleus
in eukaryotes

2. Plasma membrane, a phospholipid bilayer with proteins that separates the cell
from the surrounding environment and functions as a selective barrier for the import
and export of materials

3. Cytoplasm, the rest of the material of the cell within the plasma membrane,
excluding the nucleoid region or nucleus, that consists of a fluid portion called the
cytosol and the organelles and other particulates suspended in it

4. Ribosomes, the organelles on which protein synthesis takes place

b. Explain what structures are unique to specific cells.

There are many different types of cells.  One major difference in cells occurs between plant cells and
animal cells.  While both plant and animal cells contain the structures discussed above, plant cells have
some additional specialized structures.  Many animals have skeletons to give their body structure and
support.  Plants do not have a skeleton for support and yet plants don't just flop over in a big spongy
mess.  This is because of a unique cellular structure called the cell wall.  The cell wall is a rigid structure
outside of the cell membrane composed mainly of the polysaccharide cellulose.  As pictured at left, the
cell wall gives the plant cell a defined shape which helps support individual parts of plants.  In addition to
the cell wall, plant cells contain an organelle called the chloroplast.  The chloroplast allow plants to
harvest energy from sunlight.  Specialized pigments in the chloroplast (including the common green
pigment chlorophyll) absorb sunlight and use this energy to complete the chemical reaction:

 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + energy (from sunlight)   C6H12O6 + 6 O2

In this way, plant cells manufacture glucose and other carbohydrates that they can store for later use.

c. Explain the characteristics of each structure.

d. Explain the function of each structure.

e. Predict how damage to each organelle type may affect cell function.

nucleoid region- In prokaryotic cells, a dense, centrally located region that contains DNA but is
not surrounded by a membrane.
Golgi apparatus- A Eukaryotic organelle, consisting of stacks of flattened membranous sacs
(cisternae), that function in processing and sorting proteins and lipids destined to be secreted or
directed to other organelles.
Lumen- The interior space of any hollow structure (ex. Rough ER or the stomach)
Plasmid- A small, usually circular, super-coiled DNA molecule independent of the cell’s main
chromosome(s) in prokaryotes and some eukaryotes.
Mitochondria (mitochondrion)- A eukaryotic organelle that is bounded by a double membrane
and is the site of aerobic respiration.
nuclear envelope- The double layered membrane enclosing the nucleus of the eukaryotic cell.
flagella (flagellum)- A long, cellular projection that undulates (in eukaryotes) or rotates (in
prokaryotes) to move the cell through an aqueous environment.
Chloroplast- A chlorophyll containing organelle, bounded by a double membrane, in which
photosynthesis occurs; found in plants and photosynthetic protists. Also the location of fatty
acids, purine, and pyrimidine synthesis.
cell wall- A fibrous layer found outside the plasma membrane of most bacteria and archae and
many eukaryotes.
Nucleolus- In Eukaryotic cells, specialized structure in the nucleus where ribosomal RNA
processing occurs and ribosomal subunits are assembled.
Lysosome- A small organelle in an animal cell containing acids and enzymes that catalyze
hydrolosis reactions and can digest large molecules.
smooth endoplasmic reticulum- portion of the endoplasmic reticulum that does not have
ribosomes attatched to it. Involved in synthesis and secretions of lipids.
Chromatin- The complex of DNA and proteins, mainly histones, that compose Eukaryotic
chromosomes. Can be highly compact (heterochromatin) or loosely coiled (euchromatin).
Peroxisome- An organelle found in in most eukoryotic cells that contains enzymes for oxidizing
fatty acids and other compounds including many toxins, rendering them harmless.
Ribosome- A large complex structure that synthesizes proteins by using the genetic information
encoded in messenger RNA strands. Consists of two subunits, each composed of ribosomal RNA
and proteins.
Chromosome- Gene carrying structure consisting of a single long molecule of DNA and
associated proteins (histones). Most prokaryotic cells contain a singular, circular chromosome.
Eukaryotic cells cantain multiple linear chromosomes located in in the nucleus.
Vacuole- A large organelle in plant and fungal cells that usually is used for bulk storage of
water, pigments, oil or other substances. Some vacuoles contain enzymes that have digestive
function similar to lysosomes in animal cells.
rough endoplasmic reticulum- The portion of the endoplasmic reticulum that is dotted with
ribosomes. Involved in synthesis of plasma membrane proteins, secreted proteins, and proteins
localized to the ER, Golgi apparatus, and lysosomes.
Cytoplasm- All the contents of the cell, excluding the nucleus, bounded by the plasma
membrane.
Centrioles- One of two small cylindrical structures, structurally similar to a basal body, found
together within the centrosome near the nucleus of a eukaryotic cell.
cytoskeleton- In eukaryotic cells, network protein fibers in the cytoplasm that are ijvolved in cell
shape, support, locomotion, and transport of materials within the cell. Prokaryotic cells have a
similar but much less extensive network of fibers.
Microfilaments- also known as actin filament- a long fiber, about 7 nm in diameter, composed
of two intertwined strands of polymerized actin protein; one of 3 types of cytoskeletal fibers.
Involved in cell movement
Intermediate filaments- a long fiber, about 10 nm in diameter, composed of one of various
proteins (keratins, lamins); one of 3 types of cytoskeleton fibers. Form networks that help
maintain cell shape and hold the nucleus in place.
Microtubules- a long, tubular fiber, about 25 nm in diameter, formed by polymerization of
tubulin protein dimmers; 1 of 3 types of cytoskeleton fibers. Involved in cell momevement and
transfer of materials within the cell.
Myosin- Any one class of motor proteins that use the chemical energy of ATP to move along
actin filaments in muscle contraction cytokinesis, and vesicle transport.

3- The endomembrane system is involved in the manufacture and shipment

of proteins destined for deliver out of the cell. Describe the structures
involved in the endomembrane system and explain how a protein is
in that system. Include the signal recognition hypothesis in
your explanation.

4- Which organelles synthesized are necessary for eukaryotic cell function that are not
found in prokaryotes? Explain.

5- How does eukaryotic cell size affect the rate of biochemical reactions?
(Ask yourself why cells aren’t bigger…)

6- Describe all the steps in the synthesis, processing and transport of

proteins. Is this process the same for cytoplasmic and membrane bound
proteins? Explain.

7- The Golgi apparatus has cis and trans orientations. What does that mean?
What are the functions of each? How does material move in the Golgi?

8- Compare and contrast phagocytosis, autophagy, pinocitosis, exocitosis,

and endocytosis? Under what conditions would you expect to see/not see
each?

9- Describe the relationship between the outer nuclear membrane and the
rough ER.

10- What is the structure and function of the nuclear pores?

11- Explain how proteins are tagged and shipped by the Golgi apparatus to
their final destination.

12- Describe the structure and functions of each major class of cytoskeleton
molecule (3 biggies – all share similar function, but each has a specialty).

Learning Objectives of the Cell Membrane (Part of the Sixth

chapter)
1- Use the properties of phospholipids to explain how and why phospholipid bilayers
spontaneously form in water.

2- Compare and contrast diffusion and osmosis and predict the direction of solute movement
across a selectively permeable membrane.

3- Use the definitions of hypertonic, hypotonic, and isotonic solutions to discuss how water will
diffuse across a selectively permeable membrane.

4- Explain how membrane proteins help substances cross a cell membrane.

5- Use examples to compare and contrast passive and active transport.

1- Explain how the hydrophobic region of the phospholipid bilayer is stabilized.

2- What is membrane permeability?

3- How do different molecules move through membranes? Can you look at a
molecule and know its likely permeability?

4- How does the saturation level and tail length of the fatty acids and the
amount of cholesterol affect the permeability of a membrane?

5- What is the meaning of the following terms?

Solute
Concentration gradient
Solvent
Diffusion
Osmosis
Facilitated diffusion
Active transport
tonicity
Solute
Concentration gradient
Hypotonic
Isotonic
hypertonic
Passive diffusion

6- Explain how water in an animal or plant cell will behave when placed in a
hypotonic, isotonic, hypertonic solution. What effect (if any) will the movement
of water have on the cell?

7- Describe the structure and function of the various types of membrane

proteins. Given a membrane proteins structure, predict its function (and vice
versa).