Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
David Bachrach
Current scholarly orthodoxy holds that the German kingdom under the
Ottonians (c.919–1024) did not possess an administration, much less an
administrative system that relied heavily upon the ‘written word’. It is the
contention of this essay that the exercise of royal power under Otto the Great
(936–73) relied intrinsically on a substantial royal administrative system that
made very considerable use of documents, particularly for the storage of
crucial information about royal resources. The focus of this study is on Otto
I’s use of this written information to exercise royal power in the context of
confiscating and requisitioning property from both laymen and ecclesiastical
institutions.
Introduction
Ottonian politics is not easy for us moderns to grasp. Quite apart
from its being so much about inheritances and feuds within or
between kinships, it largely lacked anything which we can recognize
as an administration or a bureaucracy, such as we historians have
tended to think of as the spine of any body politic which they study.
Ottonian rule was not, in Max Weber’s terminology, bureaucratic but
patrimonial.1
1
Henry Mayr-Harting, Church and Cosmos in Early Ottonian Germany: The View from Cologne
(Oxford, 2007), p. 3.
Indeed, in 1928 Marc Bloch, looking back over more than a generation
of scholarship, observed that scholars specializing in the history of
medieval Germany tended to ignore the problem of administration all
together, a tendency that he compared unfavourably with the historio-
graphical tradition in France.2 Taking up the question of Ottonian
administration in 1979, after a historiographical gap of almost a century
going back to the work of Georg Waitz, Karl Leyser concluded on the
basis of an impressionistic investigation of a small selection of the relevant
sources that the German royal government operated on the basis of ‘a
modest array of institutions’ and very little use of written documents.3
In contrast with even this mildly optimistic view of governmental
capacity, however, in an important article of 1989 Hagen Keller, a leading
specialist in Ottonian history, specifically rejected the idea that the
Ottonian government had any administrative capacity. Keller asserted
baldly: ‘Despite the continuity of the idea of empire and the model of
Charlemagne, everything that was of particular importance for high
Carolingian imperial organization – centrality, office, law-giving, and
writing – was absent in its successor states. Indeed they simply came
to an end.’4 Writing a decade later in 1999, Gerd Althoff defended the
provocative subtitle of his work on the Ottonian dynasty, Die Ottonen:
2
March Bloch, ‘A Problem in Comparative History: The Administrative Classes in France and in
Germany’, in Land and Work in Medieval Europe: Selected Papers by Marc Bloch, trans. J.E.
Anderson (Berkeley, 1967), pp. 44–81, here p. 44. The article was first published in Revue
historique de droit français et étranger (1928), pp. 46–91.
3
Karl Leyser, Rule and Conflict in an Early Medeval Society: Ottonian Saxony (London, 1979), p.
102 for the quotation; and also Karl Leyser, ‘Ottonian Government’, English Historical Review
96 (1981), pp. 721–53, repr. in idem, Medieval Germany and its Neighbours, 900–1250 (London,
1982), pp. 68–101. It should be emphasized that although Leyser discusses some Ottonian period
charters and narrative sources, he does not examine the ways in which royal officials recorded,
maintained and accessed information that was necessary to carry out the myriad activities that
Leyser, himself, recognizes that the Ottonian kings undertook. For the earlier tradition regard-
ing administration in the Ottonian kingdom, Georg Waitz, Deutsche Verfassungsgeschichte 6, 2nd
edn, ed. G. Seeliger (Berlin, 1896), pp. 323 ff., began by looking for continutities between the
Carolingian and Ottonian periods. He was frustrated, however, by the lack of prescriptive
legislation of the type found in Carolingian era capitularies. For Waitz’s observation concerning
a lack of higher supervision over economic affairs in Ottonian Germany, see Deutsche
Verfassungsgeschichte 8, 2nd edn (Kiel, 1878), pp. 216–18.
4
Hagen Keller, ‘Zum Charakter der “Staatlichkeit” zwischen karolingischer Reichsreform und
hochmittelalterlichen Herrschaftsausbau’, Frühmittelalterliche Studien 23 (1989), pp. 248–64,
here p. 257: ‘Trotz der Kontinuität der Idee des Imperiums und der Vorbildhaftigkeit Karls
des Großen wirkt gerade das, was in Besonderheit der hochkarolingischen Reichsorganisa-
tion ausmachte – in Stichworten: Zentralität, Amt, Gesetzgebung, Schriftlichkeit –, in den
Nachfolgerreichen des karolingischen Imperiums zunächst nicht fort, sondern bricht geradezu
ab.’ For a slightly more positive assessment of the existence of a royal administration, similar to
that set out by Leyser in ‘Ottonian Government’, see Hans-Werner Goetz, ‘Staatlichkeit,
Herrschaftsordnung und Lehnswesen im Ostfränkischen Reich als Forschungsprobleme’,
in Il Feudalesimo nell’alto Medioevo, Settimane (Spoleto, 2000), pp. 85–147, here p. 123: ‘Wie
weit vorwiegend personale oder aber Amtsbindungen das Herrschaftsgefüge bestimmten, hing
nicht zuletzt von der Existence einer funktionierenden Verwaltung (sic) und deren Einordnung
in eine feudale Gesellschaftsordnung ab.’
8
With regard to Ottonian military operations during the period of civil wars, see Bachrach,
‘Military Organization’, passim.
9
The basic study is now Charles Bowlus, The Battle of Lechfeld and its Aftermath, August 955: The
End of the Age of Migrations in the Latin West (Aldershot, 2006).
10
Concerning the central role attributed to sieges during the Ottonian period by contemporary
narrative sources, see Bernard S. Bachrach, ‘Magyar–Ottonian Warfare: à-propos a New Mini-
malist Interpretation’, Francia 13.1 (2000), pp. 211–30; Bachrach, ‘Memory, Epistemology, and
the Writing of Early Medieval Military History’, pp. 75–90; idem, ‘Military Organization’, pp.
186–222; Bachrach and Bachrach, ‘Saxon Military Revolution’, passim; and Scherff, Studien,
p. 11. Archaeological discoveries since the 1950s have confirmed the dominant role of sieges
in Ottonian warfare. Joachim Henning, ‘Archäologische Forschungen an Ringwällen in
Niederungslage: Die Niederlausitz als Burgenlandschaft des östlichen Mitteleuropas im frühen
Mittelalter’, in Joachim Henning and Alexander T. Ruttkay (eds), Frühmittelalterliche Burgen-
bau in Mittel und Osteuropa (Bonn, 1998), pp. 9–29, emphasizes that the construction of forts
by the inhabitants of the Lausitz region, for example, corresponded with the invasions of these
lands by Ottonian military forces. Thus, not only did Otto’s opponents in Germany, the west,
and Italy make considerable use of fortresses for defensive purposes, so too did his opponents
in the Slavic east.
11
The substantial archaeological discoveries of the past fifty years have unearthed a vast number of
fortifications, particularly stone fortifications, from the Ottonian period, including a very large
number built directly by the Ottonian kings. See, for example, Albert K. Hömberg, ‘Probleme
der Reichsgutforschung in Westfalen’, Blätter für deutsche Landesgeschichte 96 (1960), pp. 1–21;
Erik Szameit, ‘Zum frühmittelalterlichen Burgwall von Gars/Thunau. Bemerkungen zu den
Fortifikationsresten und der Innenbebauung. Ein Vorbericht’, in Henning and Ruttkay (eds),
Frühmittelalterliche Burgenbau, pp. 71–8; Peter Ettel, ‘Ergebnisse der Ausgrabungen auf der Burg
Horsadal, Roßtal bei Nürnberg’, in ibid., pp. 127–36; Hans-Wilhelm Heine, ‘Frühmittelal-
terliche Burgen in Niedersachsen’, in ibid., pp. 137–49; Michael Gockel, ‘Ebersdorf ’, in Michael
Gockel and Karl Heinemeyer (eds), Die deutsche Königspfalzen: Repertorium der Pfalzen,
Königshöfe und übrigen Aufenhaltsorte der Könige im deutschen Reich des Mittelalters I: Hessen
(Göttingen, 1985), pp. 74–82; Karl Heinemeyer, ‘Ermschwerd’, in ibid., pp. 83–97; idem,
‘Eschwege’, in ibid., pp. 98–130; and Michael Gockel, ‘Fritzlar’, in ibid., pp. 457–509. In this
context, considerable attention should be paid to the maintenance and expansion of Carolingian
period fortification systems such as those located in the Hassegau region between the Unstrut and
Saale Rivers, including the very large fortified complexes at Altstedt, Mühlhausen, Tutinsode,
Schlotheim, Eschwege and Frieda. With regard to this particular fortification system see, for
example, Michael Gockel, ‘Mühlhausen’, Die deutschen Königspfalzen: Repertorium der Pfalzen,
Königshöfe und übrigen Aufenthaltsorte der Könige im deutschen Reich des Mittelalters, vol. II
Thüringien (Göttingen, 2000), pp. 258–318, particularly p. 288.
A second major line of fortifications was identified by Walter Schlesinger, who demonstrated
conclusively that the so-called Hersfelder Zehntverzeichnis (HZV), a list of the tithe revenues held
by the monastery of Hersfeld in the Unstrut, Saale, and Middle Elbe River valleys, although late
in date, described conditions in 780. On this basis, Schlesinger argued that the nineteen urbes
listed in the HZV, from which Hersfeld received tithe revenues, were elements of a defensive
system of fortifications that was erected by Pippin I and Charlemagne. Working on the basis of
Schlesinger’s insights, with regard to this important text, the archaeologist Paul Grimm synthe-
sized archaeological, topographical and onomastic studies dating back to the nineteenth century,
to provide a detailed and comprehensive examination of this defensive system from the
perspective of military history, and particularly the question of the development of a system of
defence-in-depth. Grimm’s conclusions regarding the development of the fortress system in
Elbe–Oder regions under the Ottonian and Salian kings were confirmed by Gerhard Billig in his
magisterial study of Burgward organization in upper Saxony and the Meißen March. With regard
to the size, complexity and organization of this system of fortifications, see Walter Schlesinger,
Die Entstehung der Landesherrschaft, Teil I (Dresden, 1941), p. 79; Paul Grim, Handbuch vor-und
frühgeschichtlicher Wall-und Wehranlagen Teil I: Die vor- und frühgeschichtlichen Burgwälle der
Bezirke Halle und Magdeburg (Berlin, 1958), passim; and Gerhard Billig, Die Burgwardorganisa-
tion im obersächsisch-meissnischen Raum: Archäologisch-archivalisch vergleichende Untersuchungen
(Berlin, 1989), passim.
12
See, for example, Gerhard Leopold, ‘Archäologische Ausgrabungen an Stätten der ottonischen
Herrscher’, Herrschaftsrepräsentation im Ottonischen Sachsen (1998), pp. 33–76, who argues for a
massive royal construction effort on churches in Saxony from 919 onwards. For royal construc-
tion or royal support for the construction of particular churches, from an archaeological
perspective, see, for example, Ulrich Reuling, ‘Quedlinburg: Königspfalz-Reichsstift-Markt’, in
Lutz Fenske (ed.), Deutsche Königspfalzen: Beiträge zu ihrer historischen und archäologischen
Erforschung vierter Band: Pfalzen – Reichsgut-Königshöfe, (Göttingen, 2001), pp. 184–247; Paul
Grimm, ‘Archäologische Beobachtungen an Pfalzen und Reichsburgen östlich und südlich des
Harzes mit besondere Berücksichtigung der Pfalz Tilleda’, in Deutsche Königspfalzen: Beiträge zu
ihrer historischen und archäologischen Erforschung, vol. 2 (Göttingen, 1965), pp. 273–99; and
Holger Grewe, ‘Die bauliche Entwicklung der Pfalz Ingelheim im Hochmittelalter am Beispiel
der Sakralarchitektur’, in Caspar Ehlers, Jörg Jarnut and Matthias Wemhoff (eds), Deutsche
Königspfalzen: Beiträge zu ihrer historischen und archäologischen Erforschung, vol. 7 Zentren
herrschaftlicher Repräsentation im Hochmittelalter, Geschichte, Architektur und Zeremoniell
(Göttingen, 2007), pp. 101–20. Very large numbers of royal charters issued by Otto I also
demonstrate the support of church establishments.
13
The basic starting point for discussions of royal palace complexes in the Ottonian period is now
Die deutsche Königspfalzen: Repertorium der Pfalzen, Königshöfe und übrigen Aufenhaltsorte der
Könige im deutschen Reich des Mittelalters, vols 1–4 (Göttingen, 1982–2000).
14
To give but one example, of the more than 250 fortifications identified through archaeological
excavations in northern Bavaria dating from the period c.700–c.1000, only 30 are named in
surviving written sources. On this point, see Ettel, ‘Ergebnisse’, p. 127.
The royal court was constantly on the move . . . The itinerary was
partly economic in point – to exploit effectively the rulers’ estates in
the regions; but it was partly political. In face-to-face politics the
king’s periodic presence was vital. There was yet another point to the
itinerary. It was sacral . . . Sacral kingship, however, was no easy or
15
The figure of 800 fiscal units must be considered a minimum, derived from counting the fiscal
properties identified in surviving royal and so-called private charters from Otto I’s reign, as well
as royal fiscal properties from the eighth, ninth, and early tenth century that can be identified
in royal hands under Otto I’s successors. In regard to the enormous continuity in royal
possession of Carolingian fiscal assets under the Ottonians see, for example, Wolfgang Metz,
Das karolingische Reichsgut (Berlin, 1960), p. 179; Marianne Schalles-Fischer, Pfalz und Fiskus
Frankfurt: Eine Untersuchung zur Verfassungsgeschichte des fränkischen-deutschen Königtums
(Göttingen, 1969), p. 265 and passim; Michael Gockel, Karolingische Königshöfe am Mittelrhein
(Göttingen, 1970), passim; and Peter Schmid, Regensburg: Stadt der Könige und Herzöge im
Mittelalter (Kallmünz, 1977), p. 284 and passim.
16
With regard to Ottonian period taxes and tolls, the most recent work is Neil Middleton, ‘Early
Medieval Port Customs, Tolls and Controls on Foreign Trade’, EME 13 (2005), pp. 313–58. This
study focuses considerable attention on the problem of record keeping by fiscal officials, noting
that the grants of certain percentages of toll revenues, e.g. a tenth, necessarily required the
keeping of toll records over the course of the entire year (p. 327). For comparative purposes
regarding the revenues obtained by Charlemagne from tolls, see F.L. Ganshof, ‘A propos du
tonlieu a l’époque Carolingienne’, Settimane 6 (1959), pp. 485–508.
17
With regard to the central role of the itinerary in the practice of royal government, the basic
work remains Carlrichard Brühl, Fodrum, Gistum Serivitum Regis: Studien zu den wirtschaftli-
chen Grundlagen des Königtums im Frankenreich und in den fränkischen Nachfolgestaaten Deut-
schland, Frankreich und Italien vom 6. bis zur Mitte des 14. Jahrhunderts (Cologne, 1968). Many
scholars have added to the picture of the royal itinerary in a variety of areas. Bernhardt, Itinerant
Kingship, for example, emphasizes the important role that monasteries, alongside bishoprics,
played in providing material support for the royal court on the move. Additional insights, from
archaeological, art historical and architectural perspectives, have been developed through the
series Deutsche Königspfalzen: Beiträge zu ihrer historischen und archäologischen Erforschung, 7
vols (Göttingen, 1963–2007), published through the auspices of the Max-Planck-Institut für
Geschichte at Göttingen; and the series Die deutsche Königspfalzen: Repertorium der Pfalzen,
noted above (nn. 11 and 14).
18
Mayr-Harting, Church and Cosmos, pp. 3–4.
19
On this point, see Gerd Althoff, Die Macht der Rituale: Symbolik und Herrschaft in Mittelalter
(Darmstadt, 2003), pp. 71–6; Hagen Keller, ‘Ritual, Symbolik und Visualisierung in der Kultur
des ottonischen Reiches’, Frühmittelalterliche Studien 35 (2001), pp. 23–59; and the discussion by
Mayr-Harting, Church and Cosmos, p. 5.
20
Regarding the importance of sacral elements of rule to both pagan and Christian Roman
emperors, see Michael McCormick, Eternal Victory: Triumphal Rulership in Late Antiquity,
Byzantium, and the Early Medieval West (Cambridge, 1990).
21
Regarding the active management of fiscal properties by royal officials in this period, see
Gockel, Karolingische Königshöfe, p. 27; Schalles-Fischer, Pfalz und Fiskus, p. 326; Schmid,
Regensburg, p. 230; and F.J. Heyen, Reichsgut im Rheinland. Die Geschichte des königlichen Fiskus
Boppard (Bonn, 1956) p. 65. It should be noted that these studies were completed before the
path-breaking work of Rosamond McKitterick, Carolingians and the Written Word (Cambridge,
1989) and the important studies on the use of written documents by the Carolingian govern-
ment that came in its wake (see Janet Nelson below, n. 22). Consequently, largely missing from
these early discussions of the administration of the fisc was the role played by written docu-
ments at the local level, in the court, and in communications between the two. Rather, these
fiscal studies were written against a background in which writing of all types was understood to
have played only a very limited role in the activities of the government.
Confiscations
The economic basis of power in the early Middle Ages, as Janet Nelson
cogently observed in a discussion of the use of literacy in the Carolingian
government under Charlemagne, Louis the Pious and Charles the Bald,
was ‘efficient landlordship’.22 Stripping a magnate of the benefices that he
held from the royal fisc, and even more so, stripping him of his family’s
allodial possessions, was tantamount to reducing him to the level of
political and social nonentity.23 Consequently, the political decision by
the king to exercise his power in this manner was fraught with consid-
erable political risks and dangers to his position of political and moral
authority. On the level of practical politics, therefore, royal confiscations
of property from magnates can certainly be understood as having been
made more palatable to the ‘political community’ in the manner sug-
gested by scholars such as Althoff, Keller and Mayr-Harting, with the
king presenting himself plausibly as the vicarius Dei carrying out the
consensus decision of the magnates. What remains to be explained,
however, are the mechanisms by which these ostensibly political decisions
regarding the confiscation of property could be put into practice. In this
context, a distinction is to be drawn between the confiscation of ben-
efices, which were royal property that had been granted in usufruct as a
benefice to a royal fidelis, and the personal properties (allods) of royal
subjects. As will be seen below, the king had the power to confiscate both
types of properties. However, the types of information, and therefore the
administrative procedures required to obtain, store, retrieve and use this
22
Janet L. Nelson, ‘Literacy in Carolingian Government’, in Rosamond McKitterick (ed.), The
Uses of Literacy in Early Mediaeval Europe (Cambridge, 1990), pp. 258–96, here p. 272.
23
With regard to the loss of personal honour that attended the loss of honores in the Carolingian
and Ottonian periods, see Karl Leyser, ‘Early Medieval Canon Law and the Beginnings of
Knighthood’, in Instutionen, Kultur und Gesellschaft im Mittelalter: Festschrift für Josef Flecken-
stein zum 65. Geburtstag (Sigmaringen, 1984), pp. 549–66, repr. in idem, Communications and
Power in Medieval Europe: The Carolingian and Ottonian Centuries, ed. Timothy Reuter
(London, 1994), pp. 51–71. The earlier tradition on this point is set out in Hans Fehr, ‘Das
Waffenrecht der Bauern im Mittelalter’, Zeitschrift der Savigny-Stiftung für Rechtsgeschichte.
Germanistische Abteilung 35 (1914), pp. 111–211, particularly pp. 130–4.
24
Famously, Otto I stripped his son-in-law Conrad the Red, duke of Lotharingia, of all of his
beneficia because of the latter’s leadership of a revolt against the king in 954. In this regard, see
Continuator Reginonis, MGH SS 1 (Hanover, 1836), s.a. 954, p. 623. At a lower political level,
Gerhard of Augsburg, Vita Sancti Uodalrici, MGH SS 4 (Hanover, 1841), 1.28, p. 415, notes that
Bishop Ulrich’s successor at Augsburg, Henry, sought in 973 to repossess the beneficia of several
of the milites who had served in the obsequia of Bishop Ulrich’s nephews Manegold and
Hupold.
25
The procedures by which such confiscations took place at the comital level in the east during
the Carolingian period are discussed in detail by Warren Brown, Unjust Seizure: Conflict,
Interest, and Authority in an Early Medieval Society (Ithaca, 2001). For the operation of comital
courts in the western tradition during the reign of Charles the Bald, see Janet Nelson, ‘Dispute
Settlement in West Francia’, in Paul Fouracre and Wendy Davies (eds), The Settlement of
Disputes in Early Medieval Europe (Cambridge, 1986), pp. 45–64, and reprinted in Janet Nelson,
The Frankish World (London, 1996), pp. 51–74.
26
All references are to Die Urkunden der deutschen Könige und Kaiser: Konrad I., Heinrich I. und
Otto I., ed. Theodor Sickel (Hanover, 1879–84). For the property at Liel, see DO I 155. The
identification of the site of the trial as the royal palatio is found in DO I 236. For an overview
of royal grants to Einsiedeln in the tenth century, see Joachim Salzgeber, ‘Landschenkungen an
das Kloster Einsiedeln im 10. Jahrhundert’, in Festschrift zum tausenden Todestag des seligen Abtes
Gregor, des dritten Abtes von Einsiedeln: 996–1996 (Munich, 1996), pp. 243–66.
27
DO I 155.
28
DO I 166, 189, 201 and 236. For the identification of the royal fidelis as Duke Rudolf, see Die
Urkunden Otto des II. und Otto des III., ed. Theodor Sickel (Hanover, 1893), DO II 51 and DO
III 273.
29
See DO I 155 and 236.
30
See DO I 166 and 201. Also see the confirmation of the subsequent grant of these properties by
Duke Rudolf, including Guntram’s former possessions at Colmar and Hüttenheim, to the
monastery of Peterlingen in DO II 51 and DO III 273.
31
The modern location of the property situated within the villa of Hillisazaas has not been
identified by scholars.
this information from royal officials.32 Moreover, even if the names of the
villae in which Guntram held property, and the pagi in which they were
to be found, were coerced from him after his conviction for treason, this
was hardly sufficient information to carry out, as contrasted with simply
declaring, the confiscation of these holdings. The officials of the royal fisc,
who took over possession of the confiscated properties in fifteen separate
villae, and the beneficiaries of royal largess, who received these lands as
grants from the king, required detailed information about the boundaries
as well as topographical information regarding the benefices and allods
Guntram had held.
Readers familiar with boundary clauses in Anglo-Saxon sources but
not with contemporary German documents, are likely to be surprised by
the comparatively detailed boundary clauses in large numbers of the
latter.33 For example, Otto I’s confirmation on 15 May 949 of a grant to
Archbishop Robert of Trier of two properties at Zerf and Serrig, as well
as administrative jurisdiction of forest lands attached to them, included
the following information about the historical background of earlier
grants, the status of the animal populations in forest lands, and the
boundary of the forest lands to be administered by the archbishop:
32
With regard to the keeping of archives by lay people in the eastern kingdom, see Warren Brown,
‘When Documents are Destroyed or Lost: Lay People and Archives in the Early Middle Ages’,
EME 11 (2002), pp. 337–66. For a detailed examination of one particular lay archive, see
Katherine Bullimore, ‘Folcwin of Rankweil: The World of a Carolingian Local Official’, EME
13 (2005), pp. 43–77.
33
See, for example, DH I 35; DO I 8, 11, 96, 103, 110, 118, 131, 145, 178, 259, 433; DO II 14, 27, 28,
39, 47, 50, 53, 66, 90, 125, 134, 165, 191, 204, 220, 221, 235, 262, 278, 288, 292, 297. In this context,
it should be noted that there is nothing to differentiate in terms of detail between word maps
describing properties north of the Alps, and word maps describing properties south of the Alps.
34
DO I 110. ‘Our predecessor granted certain property belonging to the royal fisc to St Peter of
Trier. They gave the villa of Valeria, with the exception of the properties at Cervia and Serviacus,
along with the royal forest which they had sold to them previously for the purpose of hunting.
For at that time, the areas around the church had been hunted out by hunters. At the order of
Charles, the aforementioned places, Cervia and Serviacus along with the forest land were given
to St Peter to prevent that the properties of the church located nearby the forest from being
devastated. Therefore we, accepting the petition of our faithful men, namely Bruno and Duke
Conrad, and Archbishop Robert, regarding this imperial order that was recited before us and
which was approved by our faithful men, shall renew the command set out in this written
request, and shall confirm it, namely that the forest set within these places and boundaries that
have been established and are in no way different from [those set out in] any other imperial
order: thus, [the boundaries shall be] from a place where the Neckar (Primancia) River rises up
to Bischofesfelt and from there along the public highway to Marciacus and then to the place
where the Saon (Sarowa) flows into the Moselle. Then the [boundary] goes from a place called
Live, from Live where the Bodelaha flows into the Drogana River. Then along the right bank
of the Neckar River.’
35
Numerous royal as well as ‘private’ charters attest to land sales and exchanges throughout Otto
I’s reign. On this point, see Bullimore, ‘Folcwin of Rankweil’, passim. It should be noted that
Folcwin, as a centenarius, was a man of much lower social and political status than was
Guntram. For more contemporary documents regarding land sales see, for example, Die
Traditionen des Hochstifts Freising: Band II 926–1283, ed. Theodor Bitterauf (Munich, 1909; repr.
Aalen, 1967), nr. 1152 pp. 78–9. In this case, in return for Count Adalbero’s property, the bishop
of Freising offered property in the northern section of the villa of Hohinpurc that was
surrounded by a ditch (vallum).
36
DO I 155.
37
See DO I 236 for the properties in question. Even if someone had memorized these data, it is
necessary to ask where he obtained this information and how such an oral report was to be
confirmed at the royal court.
Moreover, given the more than three-week round trip, under optimal
circumstances, between these estates and Augsburg, it is impossible from
a logistical standpoint that men were dispatched from the royal court to
undertake a detailed property inventory and then make a report follow-
ing Guntram’s conviction for treason, since Liel was granted to the
monastery of Einsiedeln mere days after the disgraced count’s trial had
taken place. In this context, it should be emphasized that the king,
and Liudolf, had to have a pretty good idea about the overall value
of the property that Guntram had at Liel, otherwise they risked insult-
ing the monastery with a niggardly gift, or harming the fisc by giving
too much away. So, the basic question remains. How did Otto and
Liudolf know on 9 August 952, that Guntram possessed Liel, and that this
locus was an appropriately valuable property to grant to the monastery of
Einsiedeln?
To put the matter in the clearest possible terms, in order to identify
even a list of Guntram’s properties, much less a more or less comprehen-
sive descriptio of the boundaries and contents of these holdings, such as
Liudolf and Otto almost certainly had available, the royal court required
detailed records. Given the quantity and complexity of the information
that was required, it is almost certainly the case that these records were
kept in written form.38 To suggest otherwise requires that one postulate
some type of oral system for maintaining and updating literally millions
of pieces of information regarding crops, animals, humans, buildings,
tools, and the myriad other elements of thousands of fiscal and allodial
properties that were of interest to royal planners. However, as noted
above, the records used by royal officials to advise Otto and his son
Liudolf about the properties held by Guntram were probably not of the
same type, since Guntram held benefices from the fisc and also had
allodial possessions. Both were confiscated at Augsburg. As will be seen
38
In considering the maintenance of information over time, it is important to emphasize that not
all types of information were stored in the same manner during the early Middle Ages. It is a
very different matter, for example, for a trained performer to memorize an epic poem than it is
for an untrained man to memorize complex lists of names, buildings, field dimensions, tools,
crops, and property boundaries. These two practices should not be conflated. In this regard, it
is useful to compare the discussion of oral performances, and concomitant claims that medieval
society largely lacked a written component, by Michael Richter, The Formation of the Medieval
West: Studies in the Oral Culture of the Barbarians (Dublin, 1994); The Oral Tradition in the Early
Middle Ages (Turnhout, 1994); and Richter’s essays collected in Studies in Medieval Language
and Culture (Dublin, 1995), with the observations by Wilhelm Störmer, ‘Heinrichs II.
Schenkungen an Bamberg: Zur Topographie und Typologie des Königs-und Bayerischen
Herzogsguts um die Jahrtausend-Wende in Franken und Bayern’, in Fenske (ed.), Deutsche
Königspfalzen, pp. 377–408, here p. 402. The latter concludes with regard to Henry II’s
(1002–24) efforts to carry out an inquisitio in Bavaria in 1007, ‘that it is not possible that the
king and his chancery had simply memorized these numerous places . . . This means, in explicit
terms, that Henry II must have had some sort of written description of the lower-Bavarian
properties held by the duke and the king before 1007’ (author’s translation).
below, different officials were responsible for the production and main-
tenance of records regarding these different types of holdings.
39
On the maintenance of royal archives by the later Carolingians into the tenth century, see Metz,
Das karolingische Reichsgut, p. 221; Klaus Verhein, ‘Studien zu Quellen zum Reichsgut der
Karolingerzeit’, part 2, Deutsches Archiv für Geschichte des Mittelalters 11 (1955), pp. 333–92, here
p. 376; and most recently Brigitte Bedos-Rezak, ‘Secular Administration’, in F.A.C. Mantello
(ed.), Medieval Latin: An Introduction and Bibliographical Guide (Washington, DC, 1996), pp.
195–229, here p. 199. Regarding the transportion of Lothar I’s library on campaign, see Eric J.
Goldberg, Struggle for Empire: Kingship and Conflict under Louis the German, 817–876 (Ithaca,
2006), p. 18. Nelson, ‘Literacy’, p. 281 argues that there is no information to support the case
that Charlemagne had a central archive that received reports from missi. She indicates, instead,
that the reports drawn up by the stewards of royal estates and by the missi, may have been
collected in the archives of the missi themselves. Nevertheless, Nelson does not indicate that
there is any information to support her contention concerning the archives of missi with regard
to the reign of Charlemagne. She does point to the fact that Hincmar of Rheims, in 854, had
lists of oath-takers, with the unspoken presumption that these lists had been developed by
Hincmar in his role as a missus. Later in the same study (pp. 286, 287), however, Nelson
contradicts herself with regard to the evidence for Charlemagne’s reign, noting that documents
were drawn up for storage in Charlemagne’s royal archive. Nelson appears not to have taken
into account the fact that under Louis the Pious, having multiple copies of documents drawn
up included one copy being reserved for the royal archive, and further copies being designated
for specific comital and episcopal archives. Regarding the production of multiple copies of
documents for archiving purposes, including in the royal archives, see Cullen J. Chandler,
‘Between Court and Counts: Carolingian Catalonia and the aprisio Grant, 778–897’, EME 11
(2002), pp. 19–44, here pp. 28 and 29.
40
See, for example, the discussion by John W. Baldwin, The Government of Philip Augustus
(Berkeley, 1986), p. 56.
41
With regard to Ottonian use of Carolingian administrative models, with particular reference to
the fisc, see Metz, Reichsgut, pp. 18–72, 220–7, and passim; Brühl, Fodrum, Gistum, p. 68; and
Gockel, Karolingische Königshöfe, p. 27. Concerning Ottonian maintenance of Carolingian
administrative practice with regard to military affairs, see Bachrach, ‘Magyar–Ottonian
Warfare’, passim; Bachrach and Bachrach, ‘Military Revolution’, passim; and Bachrach,
‘Ottonian Military Organization’, passim. With regard to the specific requirement that the
centenarii were to provide detailed reports regarding the beneficia that were held in their
areas of jurisdiction, see MGH Capitularia 1 (Hanover, 1883), no. 49 c. 4, p. 136.
42
Nelson, ‘Literacy’, p. 285.
43
DO I 189.
Thurgau was located within the comitatus of Duke Burchard within the
duchy (ducatus) of Alamannia. This was, of course, time-conditioned
information given the nature of mortality rates in tenth-century Europe,
and the consequent regular reassignment of pagi to new counts. While at
Pöhlde the clerk also was made aware that the property at Eschenz had
belonged to Comes Guntram, and further, that it had been confiscated
because of the latter’s perfidia and assigned to the fisc as the result of a
public trial, i.e. reatus iusto iudicio publice in ius regium et diiudicata.44 As
these details make clear, we are dealing here with both an institutional
memory about the historical status of the property now held by the fisc,
and an up-to-date set of data about the political and administrative
jurisdictions within which this fiscal property was located, at a remove of
almost six hundred kilometres and five years from the property itself, and
from the trial at which it was confiscated. Whether all of the details
regarding the contents of this property were also available to the royal
clerk cannot now be known. What is certain, however, is that this
information had to be made available to the abbot of Einsiedeln before
his administrators could effectively take possession of Guntram’s former
lands.
The grant to the royal fidelis Rudolf in 959, discussed above, provides
a similarly illuminating glance into the operations of the royal adminis-
trative apparatus that travelled with the king. The charter on behalf of
Rudolf was issued at Walbeck, some 650 kilometres from Colmar and 620
kilometres from Hüttenheim, two further Alsatian estates that had been
confiscated from Guntram in 952.45 The clerk who drew up this text was
aware of the means by which, and the reason why, the fisc had reacquired
these two properties, as well as the holdings at Hillisazaas, noting ‘we
acquired all of these properties in full ownership because Guntram was a
rebel against the public good and our royal power’.46 In addition, the
clerk was sufficiently well informed about the contents of the properties
associated with the villa of Hillisazaas, to note that the dependent prop-
erty at Brumal (Pruomad) and its appurtenances were not available to be
granted to Rudolf.47 In this exclusion of the property at Brumal from the
grant to Rudolf, we see that the dossier regarding this particular fiscal
holding had been updated to note that Brumal was no longer available to
be granted away.48
44
DO I 189.
45
DO I 201.
46
DO I 201: ‘omnia quae nobis ideo in ius proprietatis sunt redacta, quia ipse Guntramnus contra
rem publicam nostrae regiae potestati rebelles extitit’.
47
DO I 201.
48
The identity of the recipient of this grant has not been transmitted in the surviving written
sources.
49
DO I 236.
50
DO I 236.
51
DO I 189 and 236.
52
Changes in the physical status of lands and other properties held as beneficia were to be reported
to the court by comital officials. However, the main responsibility for maintaining up-to-date
records regarding the possessor of the benefice, the boundaries of the benefice, and the reacquis-
tion of the benefice by the royal fisc, lay with officials at court. It was only from this central
perspective that it was possible for the king’s advisers to know the status of royal fiscal lands
throughout the many hundreds of pagi within the German kingdom north of the Alps.
53
Regarding continuities in royal administrative practice from the Carolingian to the Ottonian
period, see nn. 39 and 41.
54
For the Carolingian capitulary legislation on this point, see MGH Capitularia 2 (Hanover 1898),
no. 188 c. 5, p. 10; vol. II, no. 273 c. 27, p. 321 and ibid., no. 274 c. 13, p. 331. For a discussion
of these list-making requirements and their implementation in the west from a pessimistic
perspective, see F.L. Ganshof, ‘Charlemagne et les institutions de la monarchie franque’, in W.
Braunfels et al. (eds), Karl der Grosse: Lebenswerk und Nachleben, 5 vols (Düsseldorf, 1965), I, pp.
349–93. See this article in a revised version, ‘Charlemagne and the Institutions of the Frankish
Monarchy’, published in F.L. Ganshof, Frankish Institutions under Charlemagne, trans. Bryce
and Mary Lyon (Providence, RI, 1968), pp. 3–55, 101–51. For a much more positive assessment
of the capacity of the western Carolingian kings to enforce these list-making requirements, with
an emphasis on keeping lists of men liable for military service, see Nelson, ‘Literacy’, p. 279; and
now Walter Goffart, ‘Frankish Military Duty and the Fate of Roman Taxation’, EME 16 (2008),
pp. 166–90, who emphasizes the connection between keeping track of men with military
obligations and tax assessments carried out by Charles the Bald.
55
DO I 166 for the grant to Lorsch in which the allodial nature of these properties is identified.
56
DO I 166 for the description.
information to the royal fiscal officials, with the record eventually finding
its way into the hand of the royal clerk who drew up the charter on behalf
of Lorsch.57
A further administrative question is raised in this context. How did
Count Bernhard know that Guntram had allodial properties within the
comitatus? As suggested above, the comites with responsibility for a par-
ticular comitatus maintained lists of the allodial landholders within their
areas of administrative competence. If it became necessary to assess a
particular landowner for military service, or, as in the case of Guntram,
to confiscate property, the count could carry out an inquisitio on the
model that had long been the norm under both the Carolingians and the
Ottonians.58 Since the grant to Lorsch in 953 makes clear that this
information about Guntram’s allodial holdings was obtained by the
court, there can be no question that an administrative procedure to
identify the thirty hobae, i.e. an inquest, had taken place.
Indeed, a royal charter issued on behalf of St Emmeram in February
961 illustrates how this procedure was executed.59 In this case, Otto
granted a portion of the allodial property (partem hereditatis) that the
nobilis vir Diotmar had held at Premberg (Priemperch), which was
located in the pagus of Nordgau within the comitatus of Count Berthold.
The property had been taken into possession by the fisc, i.e. regiae
potestas, following the judgement (iudicium) of the local scabini.60 Here,
Count Berthold presided over a trial in which the scabini gave their
judgement, and the property was inventoried. The scabini were probably
responsible for the on-site process of investigating the boundaries and
contents of Diotmar’s holding. Following this process, the lands were
transferred to the fisc along with a detailed written report.61
Another example of comitial judicial efforts at the mallum being
deployed in the interest of the royal fisc can be seen in a charter issued in
57
DO I 166.
58
Regarding the continued importance of expeditionary levies under the Ottonians, see Bachrach
and Bachrach, ‘Military Revolution’, pp. 15–17, 29–35, and passim; and Bachrach, ‘Ottonian
Military Organization’, passim. Concerning the use of the process of inquisitio by the Carol-
ingians, and by the Ottonians following Carolingian practice, see Metz, Das karolingische
Reichsgut, pp. 210–13, and 231–2. For similar continuity in the use of the inquisitio in the regions
of the middle kingdom, see Karl Heidecker, ‘Communications by Written Texts in Court Cases:
Some Charter Evidence (ca. 800 – ca. 1100)’, in Marco Mostert (ed.), New Approaches to
Medieval Communications (Turnhout, 1999), pp. 101–26, here pp. 103–4, for the use of the
inqusitio in Burgundy. For the application of this process under Henry I, see DH I 35.
59
DO I 219.
60
DO I 219.
61
For a thorough presentation of this process, see DO I 419a and 419b which provide details of
the inquisitio held to determine whether the bishopric of Chur had been wrongly dispossessed
of properties by royal officials. These charters list the names of the electi viri who gave their
judgement on the basis of testimony taken from knowledgeable people who had been sum-
moned to the court proceedings.
62
DO I 226.
63
See DO I 30, 32, 52, 59, 60, 78, 80, 107, 115, 135, 164, 171, 194, 195, 200, 204, 207, 217, 219, 226,
316, 320, 330, 331, 332, 333, 383.
64
The basic account of the system is Brühl, Fodrum Gistum. The most thorough discussion of the
military aspects of servitium regis in the Ottonian period is Leopold Auer, ‘Der Kriegsdienst des
Klerus unter den sächsischen Kaisern’, Mitteilungen des Instituts für Österreichische Geschichts-
forschung 79 (1971), pp. 316–407; and idem, ‘Der Kriegsdienst des Klerus unter den sächsischen
Kaisern’, MIÖG 80 (1980), pp. 48–70.
65
In this regard, see Bernard S. Bachrach, Early Carolingian Warfare: Prelude to Empire
(Philadelphia, 2001), pp. 57, 66, and passim; and Timothy Reuter, ‘The Imperial Church
System of the Ottonian and Salian Rulers: A Reconsideration’, Journal of Ecclesiastical History
33 (1982), pp. 347–74, who sought to place Ottonian practices within a broader context that
showed Carolingian grants of resources to ecclesiastical institutions, as well as the similar uses
of royal fiscal resources by the kings of France and England.
66
A number of scholars have recognized that grants by kings of the Ottonian dynasty to
ecclesiastical institutions were not absolute. With regard to grants to various royal chapels in
Frankfurt, for example, that subsequently were revoked, see Schalles-Fischer, Pfalz und Fiskus
Frankfurt, p. 274.
67
See in this regard, Ganshof, Frankish Institutions, pp. 148–49, n. 387; Bernard S. Bachrach,
‘Charles Martel, Mounted Shock Combat, the Stirrup and Feudalism’, Studies in Medieval and
Renaissance History 7 (1970), pp. 49–75, and reprinted with the same pagination in idem, Armies
and Politics in the Early Medieval West (Aldershot, 1993); Herwig Wolfram, ‘Karl Martell und das
fränkische Lehenswesen. Aufnahme eines Nichtbestandes’, in Jörg Jarnut, Ulrich Nonn and
Michael Richter (eds), Karl Martel in seiner Zeit (Sigmaringen, 1994), pp. 61–78; and Ulrich
Nonn, ‘Das Bild Karl Martells in mittelalterlichen Quellen’, in ibid., pp. 9–21. It should be
noted, however, that Charles Martel’s role in this matter generally is agreed to have been
exaggerated in contemporary sources.
68
For a useful survey of this practice in the west during the Carolingian period, see Giles
Constable, ‘Nona et Decima: An Aspect of Carolingian Economy’, Speculum 35 (1960), pp.
224–50. Constable did not discuss this practice in the east.
69
DO I 30.
70
DO I 30.
71
Regarding this Revindikationspolitik in Bavaria, see Hans Constantin Faußner, ‘Die Verfügungs-
gewalt des deutschen Königs über weltliches Reichsgut im Hochmittelalter’, Deutsches Archiv 29
(1973), pp. 345–449, here p. 409. With particular reference to this charter as evidence of Otto
I’s effort to make good excesses committed by his officials in Bavaria, see Schmid, Regensburg,
p. 148.
going back decades. As scholarship focused on the royal fisc in Bavaria has
long maintained, if royal officials did not have written records of these
fiscal holdings, it would have been impossible for such properties to have
been reacquired by the fiscal agents Otto dispatched to Bavaria.72
Returning to the charter issued to Bishop Landbert, it is important to
emphasize that neither the alleged grant by Arnulf to Freising nor the
confirmation by Louis the Child survive. Moreover, there is no mention
in this charter issued to Landbert, as there commonly is in Ottonian
dipomata, of the bishop presenting documents (praecepta) to the king as
confirmation of Freising’s legitimate possession of the monastery and
curtis.73 Rather, Landbert, Duke Berthold (brother of the now deceased
Duke Arnulf, and newly installed by Otto in place of Arnulf’s son
Eberhard), and alii fideles nostri Bawariensis regionis, including both
bishops and counts, are depicted asking the king for the return of these
lands to Freising. This set of circumstances suggests that the royal fiscal
officials who reacquired Moosburg and Föhring, had acted appropriately
if perhaps aggressively, but now political circumstances dictated that the
king publicly disavow their machinatio in order to shore up support for
Duke Berthold of Bavaria in the wake of the serious revolts against royal
rule in 939.74
From an administrative perspective, the details provided in this charter
shed light not only on the availability of detailed information regarding
royal fiscal holdings in Bavaria before 938, but also the procedures that
royal officials followed when properties were confiscated from their
holders and reintegrated into the fisc. In this case, the details of the
contents of these fiscal properties in Bavaria were recorded. With regard
to the lands returned to Freising, this information included the names of
the unfree dependants attached to the curtis of Föhring. The names of
these mancipia subsequently were included by the royal clerk charged
with drawing up the charter formally returning the curtis to Bishop
Landbert.75 In this context, it should be noted once more that informa-
tion regarding the names of dependants attached to a particular estate was
highly time conditioned.
If Bishop Landbert had reason to be annoyed at the confiscation of his
holdings by overzealous royal officials in 938, he, at least, had the satis-
72
With regard to the continued royal supervision of fiscal properties in Bavaria, even during the
reign of Duke Arnulf, see Schmid, Regensburg, p. 118, with particular reference to the royal mint
at Regensburg.
73
Regarding the citation of earlier charters in confirmation grants by Otto I see, for example, DO
I 83 on behalf of Reichenau; DO I 86 and 110 on behalf of Trier; DO I 118 on behalf of Stablo;
DO 127 on behalf of Eichstät (NB this is a praeceptum from King Arnulf ); and DO I 392 on
behalf of St Peter’s, Worms.
74
Widukind, Res gestae II.16.
75
DO I 30.
faction of receiving these lands back within two years with something of
an apology from Otto I. By contrast, Evergisus, abbot of Lorsch and
bishop of Minden, simply had to suffer the requisition of his properties
by the king in 948. In this case, Otto arranged to exchange property at the
villa of Hemmingesbach located in the Rheingau, which belonged to
Lorsch, i.e. quasdam res proprietatis ad ecclesiam sancti Nazarii, with a
cleric and royal fidelis named Liutharius, in return for properties that the
latter held in six separate villae.76 Liutharius was to receive lifetime
usufruct (quamdiu vivat) of the Lorsch properties, while Otto simply
added Liutharius’s lands to the fisc. The Chronicon Laureshamense records
that Lorsch eventually was to receive back the lands that had been given
to Liutharius as part of the exchange after the cleric’s death. In addition,
Lorsch was to receive Liutharius’s allodial possessions in the Rheingau
located in three villae, consisting of thirteen mansi and forty mancipia.77
In sum, Otto was able to require Lorsch to give up usufruct of its own
properties for an extended period of time so that the fisc could acquire
the immediate possession of properties owned by Liutharius in Loboden-
gau. This was valuable to the king to help build up the infrastructure
supporting the royal fortress complex (castellum) at Ladenburg.78 From
Liutharius’s perspective, he benefitted from being able to consolidate his
own holdings in the Rheingau while trading away assets to the king in the
Lobodengau. Ultimately, Lorsch benefitted from this forced grant of an
‘annuity’ to Liutharius, but not without medium-term dislocations in its
portfolio of landed holdings.
In administrative terms, the ability of the king to exchange Lorsch’s
property at Hemmingsbach required a considerable amount of informa-
tion. First, Otto and his officials had to know that Lorsch possessed land
in the Rheingau, i.e. the region where Liutharius desired to consolidate
his properties. The king also required detailed information concerning
the value of Lorsch’s holdings and their boundaries. Otherwise, it would
simply have been impossible for either Otto or the royal fidelis Liutharius
to know whether this was an exchange that they desired. How did Otto
come to have this detailed information?
It should be emphasized, in this context, that Carolingian officials
either drew up, or required to be drawn up, inventories of the properties
of ecclesiastical institutions following models resembling the one set out
in the capitulary de villis.79 In the case of Lorsch, the detailed study of the
76
DO I 95.
77
Chronicon Laureshamense, MGH SS 21 (Hanover, 1869), p. 389.
78
This fortress was in royal hands in 948. Two-thirds of the toll revenues collected there had been
granted to the bishopric of Worms at some point before 953, in a now-lost charter. The
remaining third of the toll revenues there were granted to Worms in 953. See DO I 161.
79
On this point, see Ganshof, Frankish Institutions, p. 36.
so-called Lorsch Reichsurbar by Franz Staab, makes clear that the abbots
there maintained this tradition of drawing up property inventories in
both the Carolingian and Ottonian periods. They produced no fewer
than ten detailed property reports between c.800 and the end of the
eleventh century, including at least one from the late Carolingian period
and at least three from the Ottonian period.80 As had been true of the
Carolingians, Otto required this detailed information in order to assign
to Lorsch the appropriate levels of military and economic servitium that
was to be provided to the king. Of course, the abbots also had an interest
in providing this information, as it was only on the basis of these detailed
property records that the king could realistically inform royal officials,
including counts, to respect the monastery’s various immunities. In this
context, it should be noted that on 15 September 940, Otto issued a
privilege on behalf of Bishop Evergisus, now also abbot of Lorsch, grant-
ing an immunity covering the res et potestates quas per totam abbatiam that
the brothers and abbot were to enjoy legally (iure).81 This grant of an
immunity was to cover all of the properties that the monastery then
held (nunc possidet) and all of the properties that it might acquire
(acquisierit).82 Naturally, before the king could grant such an immunity,
royal officials had to be assured that Lorsch was not fraudulently claiming
lands that belonged to other ecclesiastical institutions or secular land-
holders. Such assurance could only come from a close examination of the
monastery’s own charters and polyptyques.83
All in all, even though Otto exercised his power to requisition Lorsch’s
property, by making use of the detailed information he possessed about
the monastery’s holdings, Evergisus, at least, could feel some com-
fort in 948 that his house would eventually receive back its property at
Hemmingesebach along with a ‘profit’ for its grant of an ‘annuity’ to
Liutharius. By contrast, an exchange agreement between Otto and the
80
Franz Staab, ‘Aspekte der Grundherrschaftsentwicklung von Lorsch vornehmlich aufgrund der
Urbare des Codex Laureshamensis’, in Werner Rösener (ed.), Strukturen der Grundherrschaft im
Frühen Mittelalter, 2nd edn (Göttingen, 1993), pp. 285–334, here pp. 327–8 for a summary chart.
81
DO I 34.
82
DO I 34. Naturally, as noted above, in order for this immunity to function effectively not only
did Lorsch, itself, require a list of its own properties, but the royal government needed this list
as well so that royal officials would know where they could and could not exercise their normal
authority. This property list does not survive for Lorsch in a royal charter. However, numerous
other property lists of this sort are recorded in surviving royal charters, and attest to the
administrative practice of royal officials in this regard. See, for example, DO I 222, of which
three copies survive; DO I 74 which exists in two original copies; DO I 37 and 79, which appear
to be two copies of an original list of properties and tithes granted to the monastery of St
Maurice at Magdeburg; and DO I 83 issued in surviving duplicates on behalf of Reichenau.
There are, moreover, numerous surviving grants of immunities that list the properties of the
ecclesiastical institution that are to be covered. See, for example, DO I 70, 103, 104, 118, 146, 158,
168, 174, 180, 210, 289, and 290.
83
It is precisely documents of this type that have been identified by Staab, ‘Aspekte der
Grundherrschaft’, pp. 327–8.
84
DO I 160.
85
DO I 160. These eleven properties do not appear again in the charters of Otto I as being granted
away, which suggests that they remained in royal possession up through 973.
86
As noted above, Otto I devoted considerable resources to the system of fortresses located
between the Unstrut and Saale Rivers in Thuringia, including the very large fortified complexes
at Altstedt, Mühlhausen, Tutinsode, Schlotheim, Eschwege and Frieda. This acquisition of
properties along the Saale River was probably intended to strengthen the royal economic
resources that were devoted to maintaining these fortifications.
87
DO I 2 and 55.
88
As will be seen below, even Otto I’s charters describe as an abuse the acquisition of these
properties on behalf of royal dependants.
89
See, for example, DO I 28, in which Otto ordered that no one should receive as a beneficium
property that he had just granted to the church of St George in Limburg.
in August 936, for example, Otto issued a charter on behalf of the nuns
of Alden-Eyck (modern Belgium), in which he ordered the return of
eleven hobae located in the villa of Villina, which had been taken from
the convent iniuste in order to provide a benefice to an unnamed vassallus
of Duke Gislebert of Lotharingia.90 In administrative terms, the fact that
the original order, i.e. pro verbo regis, had been issued during the reign of
Henry I, shows that the institutional memory at the royal court regarding
the actual ownership rather than the possessio of these lands survived the
accession of Otto I. In short, this memory was transpersonal.
Otto acted swiftly to alleviate the distress of the nuns of Alden-Eyck.
A charter issued on behalf of the monastery of Pfävers (modern Swiss
canton of St Gall) in 950, however, makes clear that requisitions of
ecclesiastical resources pro verbo regis to support royal dependants could
endure for a long period before the ecclesiastical institution obtained
relief.91 In this case, a number of census payers (homines censuales) had
been requisitioned a long time before (per multa tempora) in order to
provide benefices to some unnamed royal dependants.92 In keeping with
the generally negative opionion among ecclesiastical magnates regarding
such alienations of church property, Otto’s charter on behalf of Pfävers
emphasizes that the requisitioning of the monastery’s dependants had
been illegitimate, i.e. the homines censuales had been iniuste abstractos.93 To
make amends for this ‘illegitimate’ use of church property, Otto’s charter
solemnly requires that in the future neither the king (regia potestas) nor
anyone else shall presume to take away these censuales in order to establish
a beneficium for a third party.94
This return of the censuales to the control of the monastery at Pfävers
further illuminates several aspects of royal administrative practice dis-
cussed above. First, it must be emphasized that the misappropriation of
these censuales had taken place long in the past (per multa tempora),
perhaps during the reign of a previous king. Consequently, the recovery
of these censuales was dependent upon the preservation, over a substantial
period of time, of information about their names and changing status,
i.e. whether they were still alive at the time that this charter was issued,
and whether they were still censuales.95 In addition, information had to
be gathered and stored concerning the names of the children (or even
90
DO I 466.
91
DO I 121.
92
DO I 121.
93
DO I 121.
94
DO I 121.
95
It was possible for censuales to gain their freedom through the payment of a fee. See, for
example, Die Traditionen des Hochstifts Freising: Band II 926–1283, nr. 1087 pp. 30–1. In this case,
the nobilis Adalpreht gave property to Bishop Lambert in order to purchase the freedom of his
wife and son, Hasapurc and Vodarhart.
grandchildren) born to the censuales who had been abstracti from Pfäver’s
control, in the period after the initial unjust requisition of these depen-
dants. Moreover, information regarding the person or persons to whom
the censuales had been assigned as benefices, whether these recipients were
still alive, or whether the censuales had been regranted to yet another royal
fidelis, had also to be collected and stored. Finally, all of this data was
inherently time conditioned, and therefore needed to be regularly
updated. All of these factors necessitate that the information about the
censuales and about the individuals who received them as benefices was
kept in writing. The fact that Otto was in a position to return these
censuales and their descendants to Pfävers, necessarily entails that royal
officials had access to, if not possession of, the written records in ques-
tion. There is no necessity here that we are dealing with a central archive.
However, in the absence of a royal archive, we do require an explanation
for the ability of royal officials to access this information, and, even more
fundamentally, to know that this information existed.
A similar case arose with respect to the monastery of St Maximin near
Trier in 956. On 10 March of that year, Otto issued a charter, which is still
extant, in which the royal clerk recorded that Abbot Willerus sought the
return by the king of all of the tithes (dominales quas vulgo salicas vocant
decimationes) of the churches possessed by St Maximin that had been
granted out as benefices.96 The text makes clear that originally these tithes
had been royal property (nostre regales) and had never belonged to any
bishop (nulli umquam termino episcopoali vela ecclesiae subiacentes). At
some point in the past, these tithes had been granted by the king to St
Maximin, so that they became the monastery’s property.97 However, at a
later date, not specified in the charter, some of these tithes had been
granted out to royal fideles as benefices.98 It is under these circumstances
that Abbot Willerus turned to Otto to obtain the return of the tithe
revenues.99
As was the case with regard to the return of the censuales to the
monastery of Pfävers, the return to St Maximin of the right to collect
tithe revenues held as benefices by royal dependants sheds light on the
considerable scale of the written records available to the king. In order to
carry out his promise to return the revenues, Otto required detailed lists
of the benefice holders. Moreover, it was not enough for Abbot Willerus
simply to provide Otto with a list of the requisitioned tithes that was
96
DO I 179.
97
In 950, Otto had agreed to return to St Maximin a number of churches and their tithes that he
had requisitioned. However, at that time he did not require those who held these churches and
their tithes as beneficia to give them up. See DO I 122. The return of the actual revenues of the
churches and beneficia to St Maximin in 956 thus represents a second step taken by the king.
98
See DO I 122.
99
DO I 122.
Conclusion
The current scholarly consensus concerning the government of Ottonian
Germany is a classic example of an ‘either/or’ argument. Either the
Ottonians had a Carolingian-style administration that depended heavily
upon the written word to manage and access royal resources, or the
Ottonians ruled a Weberian style ‘patrimonial’ polity on the basis of the
charisma they developed through the ‘production’ of sacral kingship. It is
clear, however, in the works of numerous specialists in Carolingian
history, that such an either/or argument is neither necessary nor even
plausible. Certainly Charlemagne, Louis the Pious, Charles the Bald and,
indeed, Louis the German, made use of both a substantial written admin-
istration and also devoted enormous resources to projecting an aura of
sacrality.102 The monistic focus by historians who study the politics of the
100
See, for example, DO I 212, concerning the bishopric of Osnabrück’s efforts to recover tithe
revenues that it had lost.
101
For other examples of lands being requisitioned for use by the king, or for the use of royal
dependants as benefices, see DO I, 72, 93, 122, 157, 163, 176, 179, 314, 319 and 428.
102
In this regard see, for example, the discussions by Janet Nelson, Charles the Bald (London,
1992), passim; Giles Brown, ‘Introduction: The Carolingian Renaissance’, in Rosamond McK-
itterick (ed.), Carolingian Culture: Emulation and Innovation (Cambridge, 1994), pp. 1–51;
Bachrach, Early Carolingian Warfare, pp. 132–59; David S. Bachrach, Religion and the Conduct
of War c. 300–1215 (Woodbridge, 2003), pp. 32–63; and Goldberg, Struggle for Empire, passim.