Operational Amplifiers

OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS
Lecture - 1: Operational Amplifiers

Operational Amplifiers:
The operational amplifier is a direct-coupled high gain amplifier usable from 0 to over
1MH Z to which feedback is added to control its overall response characteristic i.e.
gain and bandwidth. The op-amp exhibits the gain down to zero frequency.
Such direct coupled (dc) amplifiers do not use blocking (coupling and by pass)
capacitors since these would reduce the amplification to zero at zero frequency.
Large by pass capacitors may be used but it is not possible to fabricate large
capacitors on a IC chip. The capacitors fabricated are usually less than 20 pf.
Transistor, diodes and resistors are also fabricated on the same chip.
Differential Amplifiers:
Differential amplifier is a basic building block of an op-amp. The function of a

differential amplifier is to amplify the difference between two input signals.
How the differential amplifier is developed? Let us consider two emitter-biased circuits as
shown in fig.1.
Fig. 1
The two transistors Q 1 and Q 2 have identical characteristics. The resistances of the
circuits are equal, i.e. R E1 = R E2 , R C1 = R C2 and the magnitude of +V CC is equal to
the magnitude of �V EE . These voltages are measured with respect to ground.
To make a differential amplifier, the two circuits are connected as shown in fig 1. The
two +V CC and �V EE supply terminals are made common because they are same.
The two emitters are also connected and the parallel combination of R E1 and R E2 is
replaced by a resistance R E . The two input signals v 1 & v 2 are applied at the base of
Q 1 and at the base of Q 2 . The output voltage is taken between two collectors. The
collector resistances are equal and therefore denoted by R C = R C1 = R C2 .
Thazhuva & Mani

Ideally, the output voltage is zero when the two inputs are equal. When v 1 is greater
then v 2 the output voltage with the polarity shown appears. When v 1 is less than v 2 ,
the output voltage has the opposite polarity.
The differential amplifiers are of different configurations.
The four differential amplifier configurations are following:
1. Dual input, balanced output differential amplifier.

2. Dual input, unbalanced output differential amplifier.
3. Single input balanced output differential amplifier.
4. Single input unbalanced output differential amplifier.
Fig. 2
These configurations are shown in fig. 2, and are defined by number of input signals
used and the way an output voltage is measured. If use two input signals, the
Thazhuva & Mani

configuration is said to be dual input, otherwise it is a single input configuration. On
the other hand, if the output voltage is measured between two collectors, it is referred
to as a balanced output because both the collectors are at the same dc potential
w.r.t. ground. If the output is measured at one of the collectors w.r.t. ground, the
configuration is called an unbalanced output.
A multistage amplifier with a desired gain can be obtained using direct connection
between successive stages of differential amplifiers. The advantage of direct coupling
is that it removes the lower cut off frequency imposed by the coupling capacitors, and
they are therefore, capable of amplifying dc as well as ac input signals.
Lecture -1: Operational Amplifiers

Dual Input, Balanced Output Differential Amplifier:
The circuit is shown in fig. 1, v1 and v2 are the two inputs, applied to the bases of Q1
and Q2 transistors. The output voltage is measured between the two collectors C1 and
C2 , which are at same dc potentials.
D.C. Analysis:
To obtain the operating point (ICC and VCEQ) for differential amplifier dc equivalent
circuit is drawn by reducing the input voltages v1 and v2 to zero as shown in fig. 3.
Fig. 3
The internal resistances of the input signals are denoted by RS because RS1= RS2. Since
both emitter biased sections of the different amplifier are symmetrical in all respects,
therefore, the operating point for only one section need to be determined. The same
values of ICQ and VCEQ can be used for second transistor Q2.
Applying KVL to the base emitter loop of the transistor Q1.
Thazhuva & Mani

The value of RE sets up the emitter current in transistors Q1 and Q2 for a given value of
VEE. The emitter current in Q1 and Q2 are independent of collector resistance RC.
The voltage at the emitter of Q1 is approximately equal to -VBE if the voltage drop
across R is negligible. Knowing the value of IC the voltage at the collector VCis given by
VC =VCC � IC RC
and VCE = VC � VE
= VCC � IC RC + VBE
VCE = VCC + VBE � ICRC (E-2)
From the two equations VCEQ and ICQ can be determined. This dc analysis applicable
for all types of differential amplifier.
Example - 1
The following specifications are given for the dual input, balanced-output differential
amplifier of fig.1:
RC = 2.2 kΩ, RB = 4.7 kΩ, Rin 1 = Rin 2 = 50 Ω, +VCC = 10V, -VEE = -10 V, βdc =100
and VBE = 0.715V.
Determine the operating points (ICQ and VCEQ) of the two transistors.
Solution:
The value of ICQ can be obtained from equation (E-1).
Thazhuva & Mani

The voltage VCEQ can be obtained from equation (E-2).
The values of ICQ and VCEQ are same for both the transistors.

Dual Input, Balanced Output Difference Amplifier:
The circuit is shown in fig. 1 v 1 and v 2 are the two inputs, applied to the bases of Q 1
and Q 2 transistors. The output voltage is measured between the two collectors C 1
and C 2 , which are at same dc potentials.
Fig. 1
A.C. Analysis :
In previous lecture dc analysis has been done to obtain the operatiing point of the
two transistors.
To find the voltage gain A d and the input resistance R i of the differential amplifier,
the ac equivalent circuit is drawn using r-parameters as shown in fig. 2. The dc
voltages are reduced to zero and the ac equivalent of CE configuration is used.
Thazhuva & Mani

Fig. 2
Since the two dc emitter currents are equal. Therefore, resistance r' e1 and r' e2 are
also equal and designated by r' e . This voltage across each collector resistance is
shown 180° out of phase with respect to the input voltages v 1 and v 2 . This is same
as in CE configuration. The polarity of the output voltage is shown in Figure. The
collector C 2 is assumed to be more positive with respect to collector C 1 even though
both are negative with respect to to ground.
Applying KVL in two loops 1 & 2.
Substituting current relations,
Again, assuming R S1 / β and R S2 / β are very small in comparison with R E and r e '
and therefore neglecting these terms,
Thazhuva & Mani

Solving these two equations, i e1 and i e2 can be calculated.
The output voltage V O is given by
V O = V C2 - V C1
= -R C i C2 - (-R C i C1 )
= R C (i C1 - i C2 )
= R C (i e1 - i e2 )
Substituting i e1 , & i e2 in the above expression
Thus a differential amplifier amplifies the difference between two input signals.
Defining the difference of input signals as v d = v 1 � v 2 the voltage gain of the dual
input balanced output differential amplifier can be given by
(E-2)

Differential Input Resistance:
Differential input resistance is defined as the equivalent resistance that would be

measured at either input terminal with the other terminal grounded. This means that
the input resistance Ri1 seen from the input signal source v1 is determined with the
signal source v2 set at zero. Similarly, the input signal v1 is set at zero to determine the
input resistance Ri2 seen from the input signal source v2. Resistance RS1 and RS2 are
ignored because they are very small.
Thazhuva & Mani

Substituting ie1,
Similarly,
The factor of 2 arises because the re' of each transistor is in series.
To get very high input impedance with differential amplifier is to use Darlington
transistors. Another ways is to use FET.
Output Resistance:
Output resistance is defined as the equivalent resistance that would be measured at

output terminal with respect to ground. Therefore, the output resistance RO1 measured
between collector C1 and ground is equal to that of the collector resistance RC.
Similarly the output resistance RO2 measured at C2 with respect to ground is equal to
that of the collector resistor RC.
RO1 = RO2 = RC (E-5)
The current gain of the differential amplifier is undefined. Like CE amplifier the
differential amplifier is a small signal amplifier. It is generally used as a voltage
amplifier and not as current or power amplifier.

Example - 1
The following specifications are given for the dual input, balanced-output differential
amplifier: RC = 2.2 kΩ, RB = 4.7 kΩ, Rin 1 = Rin 2 = 50Ω, +VCC= 10V, -VEE = -10 V,
Thazhuva & Mani

βdc =100 and VBE = 0.715V.
a. Determine the voltage gain.

b. Determine the input resistance
c. Determine the output resistance.
Solution:
(a). The parameters of the amplifiers are same as discussed in example-1 of lecture-1.
The operating point of the two transistors obtained in lecture-1 are given below
ICQ = 0.988 mA
VCEQ=8.54V
The ac emitter resistance
Therefore, substituting the known values in voltage gain equation (E-2), we obtain
b). The input resistance seen from each input source is given by (E-3) and (E-4):
(c) The output resistance seen looking back into the circuit from each of the two output
terminals is given by (E-5)
Ro1 = Ro2 = 2.2 k Ω
Example - 2
For the dual input, balanced output differential amplifier of Example-1:
a. Determine the output voltage (vo) if vin 1 = 50mV peak to peak (pp) at 1
kHz and vin 2 = 20 mV pp at 1 kHz.
b. What is the maximum peal to peak output voltage without clipping?
Solution:
(a) In Example-1 we have determined the voltage gain of the dual input, balanced
output differential amplifier. Substituting this voltage gain (Ad = 86.96) and given
values of input voltages in (E-1), we get
Thazhuva & Mani

(b) Note that in case of dual input, balanced output difference amplifier, the output
voltage vo is measured across the collector. Therefore, to calculate the maximum peak
to peak output voltage, we need to determine the voltage drop across each collector
resistor:
Substituting IC = ICQ = 0.988 mA, we get
This means that the maximum change in voltage across each collector resistor is ± 2.17
(ideally) or 4.34 VPP. In other words, the maximum peak to peak output voltage with
out clipping is (2) (4.34) = 8.68 VPP.
Lecture - 3: Difference Amplifiers

A dual input, balanced output difference amplifier circuit is shown in fig. 1.
Fig. 1
Inverting & Non � inverting Inputs:
In differential amplifier the output voltage vO is given by
VO = Ad (v1 � v2)
When v2 = 0, vO = Ad v1
& when v1 = 0, vO = - Ad v2
Therefore the input voltage v1 is called the non inventing input because a positive
Thazhuva & Mani

voltage v1 acting alone produces a positive output voltage vO. Similarly, the positive
voltage v2 acting alone produces a negative output voltage hence v2 is called inverting
input. Consequently B1 is called noninverting input terminal and B2 is called inverting
input terminal.
Common mode Gain:
A common mode signal is one that drives both inputs of a differential amplifier equally.
The common mode signal is interference, static and other kinds of undesirable pickup
etc.
The connecting wires on the input bases act like small antennas. If a differential
amplifier is operating in an environment with lot of electromagnetic interference, each
base picks up an unwanted interference voltage. If both the transistors were matched in
all respects then the balanced output would be theoretically zero. This is the important
characteristic of a differential amplifier. It discriminates against common mode input
signals. In other words, it refuses to amplify the common mode signals.
The practical effectiveness of rejecting the common signal depends on the degree of
matching between the two CE stages forming the differential amplifier. In other words,
more closely are the currents in the input transistors, the better is the common mode
signal rejection e.g. If v1 and v2 are the two input signals, then the output of a practical
op-amp cannot be described by simply
v0 = Ad (v1 � v2 )
In practical differential amplifier, the output depends not only on difference signal but
also upon the common mode signal (average).
vd = (v1 � vd )
and vC = ½ (v1 + v2 )
The output voltage, therefore can be expressed as
vO = A1 v1 + A2 v2
Where A1 & A2 are the voltage amplification from input 1(2) to output under the
condition that input 2 (1) is grounded.
Thazhuva & Mani

The voltage gain for the difference signal is Ad and for the common mode signal is AC.
The ability of a differential amplifier to reject a common mode signal is expressed by its
common mode rejection ratio (CMRR). It is the ratio of differential gain Ad to the
common mode gain AC.
Date sheet always specify CMRR in decibels CMRR = 20 log CMRR.
Therefore, the differential amplifier should be designed so that r is large compared with
the ratio of the common mode signal to the difference signal. If r = 1000, vC = 1mV, vd
= 1 m V, then
It is equal to first term. Hence for an amplifier with r = 1000, a 1m V difference of

potential between two inputs gives the same output as 1mV signal applied with the same
polarity to both inputs.

Dual Input, Unbalanced Output Differential Amplifier:
In this case, two input signals are given however the output is measured at only one
of the two-collector w.r.t. ground as shown in fig. 2. The output is referred to as an
unbalanced output because the collector at which the output voltage is measured is
at some finite dc potential with respect to ground..
Thazhuva & Mani

Fig. 2
In other words, there is some dc voltage at the output terminal without any input
signal applied. DC analysis is exactly same as that of first case.
AC Analysis:
The output voltage gain in this case is given by
The voltage gain is half the gain of the dual input, balanced output differential
amplifier. Since at the output there is a dc error voltage, therefore, to reduce the
voltage to zero, this configuration is normally followed by a level translator circuit.
Differential amplifier with swamping resistors:
By using external resistors R' E in series with each emitter, the dependence of
voltage gain on variations of r' e can be reduced. It also increases the linearity range
of the differential amplifier.
Fig. 3, shows the differential amplifier with swamping resistor R' E . The value of R' E is
usually large enough to swamp the effect of r' e .
Fig. 3
Thazhuva & Mani


Example-1
Consider example-1 of lecture-2. The specifications are given again for the dual input,
unbalanced-output differential amplifier: RC = 2.2 kΩ, RB= 4.7 kΩ, Rin1 = Rin2= 50Ω,
+VCC = 10V, -VEE= -10 V, βdc =100 and VBE= 0.715V.
Determine the voltage gain, input resistance and the output resistance.
Solution:
Since the component values remain unchanged and the biasing arrangement is same,
the ICQ and VCEQ values as well as input and output resistance values for the dual
input, unbalanced output configuration must be the same as those for the dual input,
balanced output configuration.
Thus, ICQ = 0.988 mA

VCEQ = 8.54 V
Ri1 = Ri2 = 5.06 kΩ
Ro = 2.2 kΩ
The voltage gain of the dual input, unbalanced output differential amplifier is given by
Example-2
Repeat Example-1 for single input, balanced output differential amplifier.
Solution:
Because the same biasing arrangement and same component values are used in both
Thazhuva & Mani

configurations, the results obtained in Example-1 for the dual input, balanced output
configuration are also valid for the single input, balanced output configuration.
That is,
ICQ= 0.988 mA
VCEQ = 8.54 V
Vd = 86.96
Ri = 5.06 kΩ
Ro1 = Ro2 = 2.2 kΩ
Lecture - 4: Biasing of Differential Amplifiers

Constant Current Bias:
In the dc analysis of differential amplifier, we have seen that the emitter current I E
depends upon the value of β dc . To make operating point stable I E current should be
constant irrespective value of β dc .
For constant I E , R E should be very large. This also increases the value of CMRR but
if R E value is increased to very large value, I E (quiescent operating current)
decreases. To maintain same value of I E , the emitter supply V EE must be increased.
To get very high value of resistance R E and constant I E , current, current bias is used.
Figure 5.1
Fig. 1, shows the dual input balanced output differential amplifier using a constant
current bias. The resistance R E is replace by constant current transistor Q 3 . The dc
collector current in Q 3 is established by R 1 , R 2 , & R E .
Thazhuva & Mani

Applying the voltage divider rule, the voltage at the base of Q 3 is
Because the two halves of the differential amplifiers are symmetrical, each has half
of the current I C3 .
The collector current, I C3 in transistor Q 3 is fixed because no signal is injected into

either the emitter or the base of Q 3 .
Besides supplying constant emitter current, the constant current bias also provides a
very high source resistance since the ac equivalent or the dc source is ideally an
open circuit. Therefore, all the performance equations obtained for differential
amplifier using emitter bias are also valid.
As seen in I E expressions, the current depends upon V BE3 . If temperature changes,

V BE changes and current I E also changes. To improve thermal stability, a diode is
placed in series with resistance R 1 as shown in fig. 2.
Fig. 2
Thazhuva & Mani

This helps to hold the current I E3 constant even though the temperature changes.
Applying KVL to the base circuit of Q 3 .
Therefore, the current I E3 is constant and independent of temperature because of the

added diode D. Without D the current would vary with temperature because V BE3
decreases approximately by 2mV/° C. The diode has same temperature dependence
and hence the two variations cancel each other and I E3 does not vary appreciably
with temperature. Since the cut � in voltage V D of diode approximately the same
value as the base to emitter voltage V BE3 of a transistor the above condition cannot
be satisfied with one diode. Hence two diodes are used in series for V D . In this case
the common mode gain reduces to zero.

Some times zener diode may be used in place of
diodes and resistance as shown in fig. 3. Zeners are
available over a wide range of voltages and can have
matching temperature coefficient
The voltage at the base of transistor Q B is
Fig. 3
The value of R2 is selected so that I2 » 1.2 IZ(min) where IZ is the minimum current
required to cause the zener diode to conduct in the reverse region, that is to block the
rated voltage VZ.
Thazhuva & Mani

Current Mirror:
The circuit in which the output current is forced to equal the input current is said to be
a current mirror circuit. Thus in a current mirror circuit, the output current is a
mirror image of the input current. The current mirror circuit is shown in fig. 4.
Fig. 4
Once the current I2 is set up, the current IC3 is automatically established to be nearly
equal to I2. The current mirror is a special case of constant current bias and the current
mirror bias requires of constant current bias and therefore can be used to set up
currents in differential amplifier stages. The current mirror bias requires fewer
components than constant current bias circuits.
Since Q3 and Q4 are identical transistors the current and voltage are approximately
same
Thazhuva & Mani

For satisfactory operation two identical transistors are necessary.

Example – 1
Design a zener constant current bias circuit as

shown in fig. 5 according to the following
specifications.
(a). Emitter current -I E = 5 mA
(b). Zener diode with V z = 4.7 V and I z = 53
mA.
(c). β ac = β dc = 100, V BE = 0.715V
(d). Supply voltage - V EE = - 9 V.
Solution:
From fig. 6 using KVL we get
Fig. 5
Thazhuva & Mani

Practically we use R E = 820 kΩ
Practically we use R 2 = 68 Ω
The designed component values are:
R E = 860 Ω
R 2 = 68 Ω Fig. 6
Example – 2
Design the dual-input balanced output differential amplifier using the diode constant current
bias to meet the following specifications.
1. supply voltage = ± 12 V.
2. Emitter current I E in each differential amplifier transistor = 1.5 mA.
3. Voltage gain ≤ 60.
Solution:
The voltage at the base of transistor Q 3 is
Assuming that the transistor Q 3 has the

same characteristics as diode D 1 and D 2
that is V D = V BE3 , then
Fig. 7
Practically we take R E = 240 Ω.
Thazhuva & Mani

Practically we take R 2 = 3.6 kΩ.
To obtain the differential gain of 60, the

required value of the collector resistor is
The following fig. 7 shows the dual input,

balanced output differential amplifier with
the designed component values as R C =
1K, R E = 240 Ω, and R 2 = 3.6KΩ.
Lecture - 5: The Operational Amplifiers

The operation amplifier:
An operational amplifier is a direct coupled high gain amplifier consisting of one or

more differential (OPAMP) amplifiers and followed by a level translator and an output
stage. An operational amplifier is available as a single integrated circuit package.
The block diagram of OPAMP is shown in fig. 1.
Fig. 1
The input stage is a dual input balanced output differential amplifier. This stage
provides most of the voltage gain of the amplifier and also establishes the input
resistance of the OPAMP.The intermediate stage of OPAMP is another differential
amplifier which is driven by the output of the first stage. This is usually dual input
unbalanced output.
Thazhuva & Mani

Because direct coupling is used, the dc voltage level at the output of intermediate stage
is well above ground potential. Therefore level shifting circuit is used to shift the dc level
at the output downward to zero with respect to ground. The output stage is generally a
push pull complementary amplifier. The output stage increases the output voltage swing
and raises the current supplying capability of the OPAMP. It also provides low output
resistance.
Level Translator:
Because of the direct coupling the dc level at the

emitter rises from stages to stage. This increase
in dc level tends to shift the operating point of the
succeeding stages and therefore limits the output
voltage swing and may even distort the output
signal.
To shift the output dc level to zero, level translator

circuits are used. An emitter follower with voltage
divider is the simplest form of level translator as
shown in fig. 2.
Thus a dc voltage at the base of Q produces 0V

dc at the output. It is decided by R 1 and R 2 .
Instead of voltage divider emitter follower either
with diode current bias or current mirror bias as
shown in fig. 3 may be used to get better results.
Fig. 2
In this case, level shifter, which is common
collector amplifier, shifts the level by 0.7V. If this
shift is not sufficient, the output may be taken at
the junction of two resistors in the emitter leg.
Fig. 3
Fig. 4 , shows a complete OPAMP circuit having input different amplifiers with
balanced output, intermediate stage with unbalanced output, level shifter and an output
amplifier.
Thazhuva & Mani

Fig. 4

Example-1:
For the cascaded differential amplifier shown in fig. 5, determine:
• The collector current and collector to emitter voltage for each transistor.
• The overall voltage gain.
• The input resistance.
• The output resistance.
Assume that for the transistors used h FE = 100 and V BE = 0.715V
Thazhuva & Mani

Fig. 5
Solution:
(a). To determine the collector current and collector to emitter voltage of transistors
Q 1 and Q 2 , we assume that the inverting and non-inverting inputs are grounded. The
collector currents (I C ≈ I E ) in Q 1 and Q 2 are obtained as below:
That is, I C1 = I C2 =0.988 mA.
Now, we can calculate the voltage between collector and emitter for Q 1 and Q 2 using
the collector current as follows:
V C1 = V CC = -R C1 I C1 = 10 � (2.2kΩ) (0.988 mA) = 7.83 V = V C2
Since the voltage at the emitter of Q 1 and Q 2 is -0.715 V,
V CE1 = V CE2 = V C1 -V E1 = 7.83 + 0715 = 8.545 V
Next, we will determine the collector current in Q 3 and Q 4 by writing the Kirchhoff's
voltage equation for the base emitter loop of the transistor Q 3 :
V CC � R C2 I C2 = V BE3 - R' E I C3 - R E2 (2 I E3 ) + V BE = 0
10 � (2.2kΩ) (0.988mA) - 0.715 - (100) (I E3 ) � (30kΩ) I E3 + 10=0
10 - 2.17 - 0.715 + 10 - (30.1kΩ) I E3 = 0
Thazhuva & Mani

Hence the voltage at the collector of Q 3 and Q 4 is
V C3 = V C4 = V CC � R C3 I C3 = 10 � (1.2kΩ) (0.569 mA)
= 9.32 V
Therefore,
V CE3 = V VCE4 = V C3 � V E3 = 9.32 � 7.12 = 2.2 V
Thus, for Q 1 and Q 2 :

I CQ = 0.988 mA
V CEQ = 8.545 V
and for Q 3 and Q 4 :
I CQ = 0.569 mA
V CEQ = 2.2 V
[Note that the output terminal (V C4 ) is at 9.32 V and not at zero volts.]
(b). First, we calculate the ac emitter resistance r' e of each stage and then its voltage
gain.
The first stage is a dual input, balanced output differential amplifier, therefore, its
voltage gain is
Where
R i2 = input resistance of the second stage
The second stage is dual input, unbalanced output differential amplifier with
swamping resistor R' E , the voltage gain of which is
Hence the overall voltage gain is
Thazhuva & Mani

A d = (A d1 ) (A d2 ) = (80.78) (4.17) = 336.85
Thus we can obtain a higher voltage gain by cascading differential amplifier stages.
(c).The input resistance of the cascaded differential amplifier is the same as the
input resistance of the first stage, that is
R i = 2β ac (r e1 ) = (200) (25.3) = 5.06 kΩ
(d). The output resistance of the cascaded differential amplifier is the same as the
output resistance of the last stage. Hence,
R O = R C = 1.2 kΩ

Example-2:
For the circuit show in fig. 6, it is given that β =100, VBE =0715V. Determine
• The dc conditions for each state

• The overall voltage gain
• The maximum peak to peak output voltage swing.
Fig. 6
Solution:
(a). The base currents of transistors are neglected and VBE drops of all
transistors are assumed same.
Thazhuva & Mani

From the dc equivalent circuit,
and
b) The overall voltage gain of the amplifier can be obtained as below:
Therefore, voltage gain of second stage
The input impedance of second stage is
The effective load resistance for first stage is
Therefore, the voltage gain of first stage is
The overall voltge gain is AV = AV1 AV2
Thazhuva & Mani

(c). The maximum peak to peak output votage swing = Vopp = 2 (VC7 - VE7)
= 2 x (5.52 - 3.325)
= 4.39 V
Lecture - 6: Practical Operational Amplifier

The symbolic diagram of an OPAMP is shown in fig. 1.
741c is most commonly used OPAMP available in IC package. It is an 8-pin DIP

chip.
Parameters of OPAMP:
The various important parameters of OPAMP are follows:
1.Input Offset Voltage:
Input offset voltage is defined

as the voltage that must be
applied between the two input
terminals of an OPAMP to null
or zero the output fig. 2, shows
that two dc voltages are applied
to input terminals to make the
output zero.
V io = V dc1 � V dc2
V dc1 and V dc2 are dc voltages

and R S represents the source
resistance. V io is the difference
of V dc1 and V dc2 . It may be Fig. 2
positive or negative. For a 741C
OPAMP the maximum value of
V io is 6mV. It means a voltage ±
6 mV is required to one of the
input to reduce the output offset
Thazhuva & Mani

voltage to zero. The smaller the
input offset voltage the better
the differential amplifier,
because its transistors are more
closely matched.
2. Input offset Current:
The input offset current I io is the difference between the currents into inverting and
non-inverting terminals of a balanced amplifier.
I io = | I B1 � I B2 |
The I io for the 741C is 200nA maximum. As the matching between two input
terminals is improved, the difference between I B1 and I B2 becomes smaller, i.e. the I io
value decreases further.For a precision OPAMP 741C, I io is 6 nA
3.Input Bias Current:
The input bias current I B is the average of the current entering the input terminals of
a balanced amplifier i.e.
I B = (I B1 + I B2 ) / 2
For 741C I B(max) = 700 nA and for precision 741C I B = ± 7 nA
4. Differential Input Resistance: (R i )
R i is the equivalent resistance that can be measured at either the inverting or non-
inverting input terminal with the other terminal grounded. For the 741C the input
resistance is relatively high 2 MΩ. For some OPAMP it may be up to 1000 G ohm.
5. Input Capacitance: (C i )
C i is the equivalent capacitance that can be measured at either the inverting and
noninverting terminal with the other terminal connected to ground. A typical value of
C i is 1.4 pf for the 741C.
6. Offset Voltage Adjustment Range:
741 OPAMP have offset voltage null capability. Pins 1 and 5 are marked offset null
for this purpose. It can be done by connecting 10 K ohm pot between 1 and 5 as
shown in fig. 3.
Thazhuva & Mani

Fig. 3
By varying the potentiometer, output offset voltage (with inputs grounded) can be
reduced to zero volts. Thus the offset voltage adjustment range is the range through
which the input offset voltage can be adjusted by varying 10 K pot. For the 741C the
offset voltage adjustment range is ± 15 mV.

7. Input Voltage Range :
Input voltage range is the range of a common mode input signal for which a
differential amplifier remains linear. It is used to determine the degree of matching
between the inverting and noninverting input terminals. For the 741C, the range of
the input common mode voltage is ± 13V maximum. This means that the common
mode voltage applied at both input terminals can be as high as +13V or as low as
�13V.
8. Common Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR).
CMRR is defined as the ratio of the differential voltage gain Ad to the common mode
voltage gain ACM
CMRR = Ad / ACM.
For the 741C, CMRR is 90 dB typically. The higher the value of CMRR the better is
the matching between two input terminals and the smaller is the output common
mode voltage.
9. Supply voltage Rejection Ratio: (SVRR)
SVRR is the ratio of the change in the input offset voltage to the corresponding
Thazhuva & Mani

change in power supply voltages. This is expressed in m V / V or in decibels, SVRR
can be defined as
SVRR = D Vio / D V
Where D V is the change in the input supply voltage and D Vio is the corresponding
change in the offset voltage.
For the 741C, SVRR = 150 µ V / V.
For 741C, SVRR is measured for both supply magnitudes increasing or decreasing
simultaneously, with R3 £ 10K. For same OPAMPS, SVRR is separately specified as
positive SVRR and negative SVRR.
10. Large Signal Voltage Gain:
Since the OPAMP amplifies difference voltage between two input terminals, the
voltage gain of the amplifier is defined as
Because output signal amplitude is much large than the input signal the voltage gain
is commonly called large signal voltage gain. For 741C is voltage gain is 200,000
typically.
11. Output voltage Swing:
The ac output compliance PP is the maximum unclipped peak to peak output voltage
that an OPAMP can produce. Since the quiescent output is ideally zero, the ac
output voltage can swing positive or negative. This also indicates the values of
positive and negative saturation voltages of the OPAMP. The output voltage never
exceeds these limits for a given supply voltages +VCC and �VEE. For a 741C it is ±
13 V.
12. Output Resistance: (RO)
RO is the equivalent resistance that can be measured between the output terminal of
the OPAMP and the ground. It is 75 ohm for the 741C OPAMP.
Example - 1
Determine the output voltage in each of the following cases for the open loop
differential amplifier of fig. 4:
a. vin 1 = 5 m V dc, vin 2 = -7 µVdc

b. vin 1 = 10 mV rms, vin 2= 20 mV rms
Thazhuva & Mani

Fig. 4
Specifications of the OPAMP are given below:

A = 200,000, Ri = 2 M Ω, R O = 75Ω, + VCC = + 15 V, - VEE = - 15 V, and output
voltage swing = ± 14V.
Solution:
(a). The output voltage of an OPAMP is given by
Remember that vo = 2.4 V dc with the assumption that the dc output voltage is zero
when the input signals are zero.
(b). The output voltage equation is valid for both ac and dc input signals. The output
voltage is given by
Thus the theoretical value of output voltage vo = -2000 V rms. However, the OPAMP
saturates at ± 14 V. Therefore, the actual output waveform will be clipped as
shown fig. 5. This non-sinusoidal waveform is unacceptable in amplifier applications.
Thazhuva & Mani

Fig. 5
13. Output Short circuit Current :
In some applications, an OPAMP may drive a load resistance that is approximately

zero. Even its output impedance is 75 ohm but cannot supply large currents. Since
OPAMP is low power device and so its output current is limited. The 741C can
supply a maximum short circuit output current of only 25mA.
14. Supply Current :
IS is the current drawn by the OPAMP from the supply. For the 741C OPAMP the
supply current is 2.8 m A.
15. Power Consumption:
Power consumption (PC) is the amount of quiescent power (vin= 0V) that must be
consumed by the OPAMP in order to operate properly. The amount of power
consumed by the 741C is 85 m W.

16. Gain Bandwidth Product:
The gain bandwidth product is the bandwidth of the OPAMP when the open loop
Thazhuva & Mani

voltage gain is reduced to 1. From open loop gain vs frequency graph At 1 MHz
shown in.fig. 6, It can be found 1 MHz for the 741C OPAMP frequency the gain
reduces to 1. The mid band voltage gain is 100, 000 and cut off frequency is 10Hz.
Fig. 6
17. Slew Rate:
Slew rate is defined as the maximum rate of change of output voltage per unit of time
under large signal conditions and is expressed in volts / µ secs.
To understand this, consider a charging current of a capacitor shown in fig. 7.
Thazhuva & Mani

Fig. 6
If 'i' is more, capacitor charges quickly. If 'i' is limited to I max , then rate of change is
also limited.
Slew rate indicates how rapidly the output of an OPAMP can change in response to
changes in the input frequency with input amplitude constant. The slew rate changes
with change in voltage gain and is normally specified at unity gain.
If the slope requirement is greater than the slew rate, then distortion occurs. For the
741C the slew rate is low 0.5 V / µ S. which limits its use in higher frequency
applications.
18. Input Offset Voltage and Current Drift:
It is also called average temperature coefficient of input offset voltage or input offset
current. The input offset voltage drift is the ratio of the change in input offset voltage
to change in temperature and expressed in µ V /° C. Input offset voltage drift = ( ∆
V io / ∆ T).
Similarly, input offset current drift is the ratio of the change in input offset current to
the change in temperature. Input offset current drift = ( ∆ I io / ∆ T).
For 741C,
∆ V io / ∆ T = 0.5 µ V / C.
∆ I io / ∆ T = 12 pA / C.
Lecture - 7: Parameters of an OPAMP

Example – 1
A 100 PF capacitor has a maximum charging current of 150 µA. What is the slew rate?
Solution:
C = 100 PF=100 x 10-12 F

I = 150 µA = 150 x 10-6 A
Slew rate is 1.5 V / µs.
Thazhuva & Mani

Example - 2
An operational amplifier has a slew rate of 2 V / µs. If the peak output is 12 V, what is
the power bandwidth?
Solution:
The slew rate of an operational amplifier is
As for output free of distribution, the slews determines the maximum frequency of
operation fmax for a desired output swing.
so
So bandwidth = 26.5 kHz.
Example - 3
For the given circuit in fig. 1. Iin(off) = 20 nA. If Vin(off) = 0, what is the differential
input voltage?. If A = 105, what does the output offset voltage equal?
Fig. 1
Solutin:
Iin(off) = 20 nA
Vin(off) = 0
(i) The differential input voltage = Iin(off) x 1k = 20 nA x 1 k = 20µ V
(ii) If A = 105 then the output offset voltage Vin(off) = 20 µ V x 105 = 2 volt
Output offset voltage = 2 volts.
Thazhuva & Mani

Lecture - 7: Parameters of an OPAMP

Example - 4
R1 = 100Ω, R f = 8.2 k, R C = 10 k. Assume that the amplifier is nulled at 25°C. If V in

is 20 mV peak sine wave at 100 Hz. Calculate E r , and V o values at 45°C for the
circuit shown in fig. 2.
Fig. 2
Solution:
The change in temperature ΔT = 45 - 25 = 20°C.
Error voltage = 51.44 mV
Output voltage is 1640 mV peak ac signal which rides either on a +51.44 mV or -
Thazhuva & Mani

51.44 mV dc level.
Example - 5
Design an input offset voltage compensating network for the operational amplifier µA
715 for the circuit shown in fig. 3. Draw the complete circuit diagram.
Fig. 3
Solution:
From data sheet we get v in = 5 mV for the operational amplifier µA 715.
V = | V CC | = | - V EE | = 15 V
Now,
If we select R C = 10Ω, the value of R b should be

R b = (3000) R C = 30000Ω = 304Ω
Since R > R max , let R S = 10 R max where R max = R a / 4. Therefore,
If a 124Ω potentiometer is not available, we may prefer to use to the next lower value
avilable, such as 104Ω, so that the value of R a will be larger than R b by a factor of
10. If we select a 10 kΩ potentiometer a s the R a value, R b is 12 times larger than
Thazhuva & Mani

R a , Thus
R a = 10 kΩ potentiometer
R b = 30 kΩ
R c = 10Ω.
The final circuit, which also includes the pin connections for the µA 715, shown
in fig. 4.
Fig. 4
Lecture -7: Parameters of an OPAMP

The ideal OPAMP :
An ideal OPAMP would exhibit the following electrical characteristic.
1. Infinite voltage gain Ad

2. Infinite input resistance Ri, so that almost any signal source can drive it
and there is no loading of the input source.
3. Zero output resistance RO, so that output can drive an infinite number of
other devices.
4. Zero output voltage when input voltage is zero.
5. Infinite bandwidth so that any frequency signal from 0 to infinite Hz can
be amplified without attenuation.
6. Infinite common mode rejection ratio so that the output common mode
noise voltage is zero.
7. Infinite slew rate, so that output voltage changes occur simultaneously
with input voltage changes.
There are practical OPAMPs that can be made to approximate some of these characters
using a negative feedback arrangement.
Equivalent Circuit of an OPAMP:
Fig. 5, shows an equivalent circuit of an OPAMP. v1 and v2are the two input voltage
Thazhuva & Mani

voltages. Ri is the input impedance of OPAMP. Ad Vd is an equivalent Thevenin
voltage source and RO is the Thevenin equivalent impedance looking back into the
terminal of an OPAMP.
Fig. 5
This equivalent circuit is useful in analyzing the basic operating principles of OPAMP
and in observing the effects of standard feedback arrangements
vO = Ad (v1 � v2) = Ad vd.
This equation indicates that the output voltage vO is directly proportional to the
algebraic difference between the two input voltages. In other words the OPAMP
amplifies the difference between the two input voltages. It does not amplify the input
voltages themselves. The polarity of the output voltage depends on the polarity of the
difference voltage vd.
Ideal Voltage Transfer Curve:
The graphic representation of the output equation is shown in fig. 6 in which the output
voltage vO is plotted against differential input voltage vd, keeping gain Ad constant.
Thazhuva & Mani

Fig. 6
The output voltage cannot exceed the positive and negative saturation voltages. These
saturation voltages are specified for given values of supply voltages. This means that the
output voltage is directly proportional to the input difference voltage only until it
reaches the saturation voltages and thereafter the output voltage remains constant.
Thus curve is called an ideal voltage transfer curve, ideal because output offset voltage
is assumed to be zero. If the curve is drawn to scale, the curve would be almost vertical
because of very large values of Ad.
Lecture - 8: Open loop OPAMP Configuration

Open loop OPAMP Configuration:
In the case of amplifiers the term open loop indicates that no connection, exists
between input and output terminals of any type. That is, the output signal is not
fedback in any form as part of the input signal.
In open loop configuration, The OPAMP functions as a high gain amplifier. There are
three open loop OPAMP configurations.
The Differential Amplifier:
Fig. 1, shows the open loop differential amplifier in which input signals v in1 and v in2
are applied to the positive and negative input terminals.
Thazhuva & Mani

Fig. 1
Since the OPAMP amplifies the difference the between the two input signals, this
configuration is called the differential amplifier. The OPAMP amplifies both ac and dc
input signals. The source resistance R in1 and R in2 are normally negligible compared
to the input resistance R i . Therefore voltage drop across these resistances can be
assumed to be zero.
Therefore
v 1 = v in1 and v 2 = v in2 .
v o = A d (v in1 � v in2 )
where, A d is the open loop gain.
The Inverting Amplifier:
If the input is applied to only inverting terminal and non-inverting terminal is

grounded then it is called inverting amplifier.This configuration is shown in fig. 2.
v 1 = 0, v 2 = v in .
v o = -A d v in
Thazhuva & Mani

Fig. 2
The negative sign indicates that the output voltage is out of phase with respect to
input 180 ° or is of opposite polarity. Thus the input signal is amplified and inverted
also.
The non-inverting amplifier:
In this configuration, the input voltage is applied to non-inverting terminals and

inverting terminal is ground as shown in fig. 3.
v 1 = +v in v2 = 0
v o = +A d v in
This means that the input voltage is amplified by A d and there is no phase reversal at
the output.
Fig. 3
In all there configurations any input signal slightly greater than zero drive the output
to saturation level. This is because of very high gain. Thus when operated in open-
loop, the output of the OPAMP is either negative or positive saturation or switches
between positive and negative saturation levels. Therefore open loop op-amp is not
used in linear applications.
Thazhuva & Mani


Closed Loop Amplifier:
The gain of the OPAMP can be controlled if fedback is introduced in the circuit. That
is, an output signal is fedback to the input either directly or via another network. If the
signal fedback is of opposite or out phase by 180° with respect to the input signal, the
feedback is called negative fedback.
An amplifier with negative fedback has a self-correcting ability of change in output

voltage caused by changes in environmental conditions. It is also known as degenerative
fedback because it reduces the output voltage and,in tern,reduces the voltage gain.
If the signal is fedback in phase with the input signal, the feedback is called positive
feedback. In positive feedback the feedback signal aids the input signal. It is also known
as regenerative feedback. Positive feedback is necessary in oscillator circuits.
The negative fedback stabilizes the gain, increases the bandwidth and changes, the
input and output resistances. Other benefits are reduced distortion and reduced offset
output voltage. It also reduces the effect of temperature and supply voltage variation on
the output of an op-amp.
A closed loop amplifier can be represented by two blocks one for an OPAMP and other
for a feedback circuits. There are four following ways to connect these blocks. These
connections are shown in fig. 4.
These connections are classified according to whether the voltage or current is feedback
to the input in series or in parallel:
• Voltage � series feedback

• Voltage � shunt feedback
• Current � series feedback
• Current � shunt feedback
Thazhuva & Mani

Fig. 4
In all these circuits of fig. 4, the signal direction is from input to output for OPAMP and
output to input for feedback circuit. Only first two, feedback in circuits are important.

Voltage series feedback:
It is also called non-inverting voltage feedback circuit. With this type of feedback, the
input signal drives the non-inverting input of an amplifier; a fraction of the output
voltage is then fed back to the inverting input. The op-amp is represented by its
symbol including its large signal voltage gain A d or A, and the feedback circuit is
composed of two resistors R 1 and R f . as shown in fig. 5
Thazhuva & Mani

Fig. 5
The feedback voltage always opposes the input voltage, (or is out of phase by 180°
with respect to input voltage), hence the feedback is said to be negative.
The closed loop voltage gain is given by
The product A and B is called loop gain. The gain loop gain is very large such that
AB >> 1
Thazhuva & Mani

This shows that overall voltage gain of the circuit equals the reciprocal of B, the
feedback gain. It means that closed loop gain is no longer dependent on the gain of
the op-amp, but depends on the feedback of the voltage divider. The feedback gain
B can be precisely controlled and it is independent of the amplifier.
Physically, what is happening in the circuit? The gain is approximately constant,

even though differential voltage gain may change. Suppose A increases for some
reasons (temperature change). Then the output voltage will try to increase. This
means that more voltage is fedback to the inverting input, causing v d voltage to
decrease. This almost completely offset the attempted increases in output voltage.
Similarly, if A decreases, The output voltage decreases. It reduces the feedback

voltage v f and hence, v d voltage increases. Thus the output voltage increases
almost to same level.
Different Input voltage is ideally zero.
Again considering the voltage equation,
vO = Ad vd
or vd = vO / Ad
Since A d is very large (ideally infinite)
∴ v d ≈ 0.
and v 1 = v 2 (ideal).
This says, that the voltage at non-inverting input terminal of an op-amp is

approximately equal to that at the inverting input terminal provided that A d is very
large. This concept is useful in the analysis of closed loop OPAMP circuits. For
example, ideal closed loop voltage again can be obtained using the results
Thazhuva & Mani

Lecture - 9: Closed Loop Amplifier

Input Resistance with Feedback:
fig. 1, shows a voltage series feedback with the OPAMP equivalent circuit.
Fig. 1
In this circuit Ri is the input resistance (open loop) of the OPAMP and Rif is the
input resistance of the feedback amplifier. The input resistance with feedback
is defined as
Thazhuva & Mani

Since AB is much larger than 1, which means that Rif is much larger that Ri.
Thus Rif approaches infinity and therefore, this amplifier approximates an
ideal voltage amplifier.
Output Resistance with Feedback:
Output resistance is the resistance determined looking back into the feedback
amplifier from the output terminal. To find output resistance with feedback Rf,
input vin is reduced to zero, an external voltage Vo is applied as shown in fig.
2.
Fig. 2
The output resistance (Rof ) is defined as
Thazhuva & Mani

This shows that the output resistance of the voltage series feedback amplifier
is ( 1 / 1+AB ) times the output resistance Ro of the op-amp. It is very small
because (1+AB) is very large. It approaches to zero for an ideal voltage
amplifier.

Reduced Non-linear Distortion:
The final stage of an OPAMP has non-linear distortion when the signal swings over
most of the ac load line. Large swings in current cause the r' e of a transistor to
change during the cycle. In other words, the open loop gain varies throughout the
cycle of when a large signal is being applied. It is this changing voltage gain that is a
source of the non-linear distortion.
Noninverting voltage feedback reduces non-linear distortion because the feedback

stabilizes the closed loop voltage gain, making it almost independent of the changes
in open loop voltage gain. As long as loop gain, is much greater than 1, the output
voltage equals 1/B times the input voltage. This implies that output will be a more
faithful reproduction of the input .
Consider, under large signal conditions, the open loop OPAMP circuit produces a
distortion voltage, designated v dist . It can be represented by connecting a source v dist
in series with Av d . Without negative feedback all the distortion voltage v dist appears
at the output. But with negative feedback, a fraction of v dist is feedback to inverting
input. This is amplified and arrives at the output with inverted phase almost
completely canceling the original distortion produced by the output stage.
The first term is the amplified output voltage. The second term in the distortion that
appears at the final output. The distortion voltage is very much, reduced because
AB>>1
Bandwidth with Feedback:
The bandwidth of an amplifier is defined as the band of frequencies for which the
gain remains constant. Fig. 3, shows the open loop gain vs frequency curve of 741C
OPAMP. From this curve for a gain of 2 x 105 the bandwidth is approximately 5Hz.
On the other hand, the bandwidth is approximately 1MHz when the gain is unity.
Thazhuva & Mani

Fig. 3
The frequency at which gain equals 1 is known as the unity gain bandwidth. It is the
maximum frequency the OPAMP can be used for.
Furthermore, the gain bandwidth product obtained from the open loop gain vs
frequency curve is equal to the unity gain bandwidth of the OPAMP.
Since the gain bandwidth product is constant obviously the higher the gain the
smaller the bandwidth and vice versa. If negative feedback is used gain decrease
from A to A / (1+AB). Therefore the closed loop bandwidth increases by (1+AB).
Bandwidth with feedback = (1+ A B) x (B.W. without feedback)
f f = f o (1+A B)

Output Offset Voltage:
In an OPAMP even if the input

voltage is zero an output voltage can
exist. There are three cause of this
unwanted offset voltage.
1. Input offset voltage.

2. Input bias voltage.
3. Input offset current.
Fig. 4, shows a feedback amplifier

with an output offset voltage source
in series with the open loop output
AV d . The actual output offset voltage
with negative feedback is smaller.
The reasoning is similar to that given
for distortion. Some of the output
offset voltage is fed back to the
inverting input. After amplification an
Thazhuva & Mani

out of phase voltage arrives at the Fig. 4
output canceling most of the original
output offset voltage.
When loop gain AB is much greater

than 1, the closed loop output offset
voltage is much smaller than the
open loop output offset voltage.
Voltage Follower:
The lowest gain that can be obtained from a non-inverting amplifier with feedback is 1.
When the non-inverting amplifier gives unity gain, it is called voltage follower because
the output voltage is equal to the input voltage and in phase with the input voltage. In
other words the output voltage follows the input voltage.
To obtain voltage follower, R1 is open circuited and Rf is shorted in a negative feedback

amplifier of fig. 4. The resultant circuit is shown in fig. 5.
v out = Av d = A (v 1 � v 2 )
v 1 = v in
v 2 =v out
v 1 = v 2 if A >> 1
v out = v in .
The gain of the feedback circuit (B) is 1. Therefore

Fig. 5
Af = 1 / B = 1
Lecture - 10: Voltage Shunt Feedback

Voltage shunt Feedback:
Fig. 1, shows the voltage shunt feedback amplifier using OPAMP.
Thazhuva & Mani

Fig. 1
The input voltage drives the inverting terminal, and the amplified as well as inverted
output signal is also applied to the inverting input via the feedback resistor R f . This
arrangement forms a negative feedback because any increase in the output signal
results in a feedback signal into the inverting input signal causing a decrease in the
output signal. The non-inverting terminal is grounded. Resistor R 1 is connected in
series with the source.
The closed loop voltage gain can be obtained by, writing Kirchoff's current equation
at the input node V 2 .
The negative sign in equation indicates that the input and output signals are out of
phase by 180. Therefore it is called inverting amplifier. The gain can be selected by
Thazhuva & Mani

selecting R f and R 1 (even < 1).
Inverting Input at Virtual Ground:
In the fig. 1, shown earlier, the noninverting terminal is grounded and the- input
signal is applied to the inverting terminal via resistor R 1 . The difference input voltage
v d is ideally zero, (v d = v O / A) is the voltage at the inverting terminals (v 2 ) is
approximately equal to that of the noninverting terminal (v 1 ). In other words, the
inverting terminal voltage (v 1 ) is approximately at ground potential. Therefore, it is
said to be at virtual ground.

Input Resistance with Feedback:
To find the input resistance

Miller equivalent of the
feedback resistor R f , is
obtained, i.e. R f is splitted into
its two Miller components as
shown in fig. 2. Therefore,
input resistance with feedback
R if is then
Fig. 2
Thazhuva & Mani

Output Resistance with Feedback:
The output resistance with

feedback R of is the
resistance measured at the
output terminal of the
feedback amplifier. The
output resistance can be
obtained using Thevenin's
equivalent circuit,shown in
fig. 3.
iO = ia + ib
Since R O is very small as

compared to R f +(R 1 || R 2 )
Therefore,i.e. i O = i a
vO = RO iO + A vd.
vd= vi � v2 = 0 - B vO
Fig. 3
Similarly, the bandwidth

increases by (1+ AB) and
total output offset voltage
reduces by (1+AB).

Example - 1
(a).An inverting amplifier is implemented with R 1 = 1K and R f = 100 K. Find the

percentge change in the closed loop gain A is the open loop gain a changes from
5 4
2 x 10 V / V to 5 x 10 V/V.
(b) Repeat, but for a non-inverting amplifier with R 1 = 1K at R f = 99 K.
Solution: (a). Inverting amplifier
Thazhuva & Mani

Here R f = 100 K
R 1 = 1K
When,
(b) Non-inverting amplifier
Here R f = 99 K
R 1 = 1K
Example - 2
An inverting amplifier shown in fig. 4 with R 1 = 10Ω and R 2 = 1MΩ is driven by a source v 1
= 0.1 V. Find the closed loop gain A, the percentage division of A from the ideal value - R 2 /
R 1 , and the inverting input voltage V N for the cases A = 100 V/V, 105 and 105 V/V.
Thazhuva & Mani

Solution:
we have
when A = 103,
Fig. 4
Example - 3
Find V N , V 1 and V O for the circuit shown in fig. 5.
Solution:
Applying KCL at N
or 2V N + V N = V O .
Now V O - V i = 6 as point A and N are virtually
Thazhuva & Mani

shorted. Fig. 5
VO - VN = 6 V
Therefore, V O = V N + 6 V
Therefore, V N = V i = 3 V.
Lecture - 11: Applications of Operational Amplifiers

Analog Inverter and Scale Changer:
The circuit of analog inverter is shown in fig. 1. It is same as inverting voltage amplifier.
Assuming OPAMP to be an ideal

one, the differential input voltage is
zero.
i.e. v d = 0
Therefore, v 1 = v 2 = 0
Since input impedance is very high,

therefore, input current is zero.
OPAMP do not sink any current.
∴ i in = i f
v in / R = - v O / R f
v o = - (R f / R) v in
If R = R f then v O = -v in , the circuit Fig. 1

behaves like an inverter.
If R f / R = K (a constant) then the

circuit is called inverting amplifier or
scale changer voltages.
Inverting summer:
The configuration is shown in fig. 2. With three input voltages va, vb & vc. Depending
upon the value of Rf and the input resistors Ra, Rb, Rc the circuit can be used as a
summing amplifier, scaling amplifier, or averaging amplifier.
Thazhuva & Mani

Again, for an ideal OPAMP, v 1
= v 2 . The current drawn by
OPAMP is zero. Thus,
applying KCL at v 2 node
This means that the output

voltage is equal to the
negative sum of all the inputs
times the gain of the circuit R f /
R; hence the circuit is called a
summing amplifier. When R f = Fig. 2
R then the output voltage is
equal to the negative sum of
all inputs.
v o = -(v a + v b + v c )
If each input voltage is amplified by a different factor in other words weighted

differently at the output, the circuit is called then scaling amplifier.
The circuit can be used as an averaging circuit, in which the output voltage is equal to
the average of all the input voltages.
In this case, Ra= Rb= Rc = R and Rf / R = 1 / n where n is the number of inputs. Here
Rf / R = 1 / 3.
vo = -(va+ vb + vc) / 3
In all these applications input could be either ac or dc.

Noninverting configuration:
Thazhuva & Mani

If the input voltages are connected to noninverting input through resistors, then the
circuit can be used as a summing or averaging amplifier through proper selection of
R 1 , R 2 , R 3 and R f . as shown in fig. 3.
To find the output voltage expression,

v 1 is required. Applying superposition
theorem, the voltage v 1 at the
noninverting terminal is given by
Hence the output voltage is
Fig. 3
This shows that the output is equal to the average of all input voltages times the gain
of the circuit (1+ R f / R 1 ), hence the name averaging amplifier.
If (1+R f / R 1 ) is made equal to 3 then the output voltage becomes sum of all three
input voltages.
vo = v a + vb+ vc
Hence, the circuit is called summing amplifier.
Example - 1
Find the gain of V O / V i of the circuit of fig. 4.
Solution:
Current entering at the inveting
terminal .
Applying KCL to node 1,
Fig. 4
Thazhuva & Mani

Applying KCL to node 2,
Thus the gain A = -8 V / V O

Example - 2
Find a relationship between VO and V1 through V6 in the circuit of fig. 5.
Fig. 5
Solution:
Let's consider of V1 (singly) by shorting the others i.e. the circuit then looks like as
shown in fig. 6.
Thazhuva & Mani

The current flowing through the resistor
R into the i/e.
The current when passes through R,

output an operational value of
Let as now consider the case of V 2 with Fig. 6

other inputs shorted, circuit looks like as
shown in fig. 7.
Now V O is given by
same thing to V 4 and V 6
net output V" = V 2 + V 4 + V 6 (3)

From (2) & (3)
V' + V" = (V 2 + V 4 + V 6 ) - (V 1 + V 3 +
V5) Fig. 7
So V O = V 2 + V 4 + V 6 - V 1 - V 3 - V 5 .
Thazhuva & Mani

Example - 3
1. Show that the circuit of fig. 8 has A = VO / Vi = - K (R2 / R1) with K = 1 +

R4 / R2 + R4 / R3, and Ri = R1.
2. Specify resistance not larger than 100 K to achieve A = -200 V / V and Ri
= 100 K.
Fig. 8
Solution:
Thazhuva & Mani


Differential Amplifier:
The basic differential amplifier is shown in fig. 1.
Thazhuva & Mani

Fig. 1
Since there are two inputs superposition theorem can be used to find the output
voltage. When V b = 0, then the circuit becomes inverting amplifier, hence the output
due to V a only is
V o(a) = -(R f / R 1 ) V a
Similarly when, V a = 0, the configuration is a inverting amplifier having a voltage

divided network at the noninverting input

Example - 1
Find vout and iout for the circuit shown in fig. 2. The input voltage is sinusoidal with
amplitude of 0.5 V.
Fig. 2
Thazhuva & Mani

Solution:
We begin by writing the KCL equations at both the + and � terminals of the op-amp.
For the negative terminal,
Therefore,
15 v- = vout
For the positive terminal,
This yields two equations in three unknowns, vout, v+ and v-. The third equation is the
relationship between v+ and v- for the ideal OPAMP,
v+ = v-
Solving these equations, we find
vout = 10 vin = 5 sinωt V
Since 2 kΩ resistor forms the load of the op-amp, then the current iout is given by
Example - 2
For the different amplifier shown in fig. 3, verify that
Thazhuva & Mani

Fig. 3
Solution:
Since the differential input voltage of OPAMP is negligible, therefore,
v1= vx
and v2 = vy
The input impedance of OPAMP is very large and, therefore, the input current of
OPAMP is negligible.
Thus
And
From equation (E-1)
or
From equation (E-2)
or
Thazhuva & Mani

The OPAMP3 is working as differential amplifier, therefore,

Integrator:
A circuit in which the output voltage waveform is the integral of the input voltage
waveform is called integrator. Fig. 4, shows an integrator circuit using OPAMP.
Fig. 4
Here, the feedback element is a capacitor. The current drawn by OPAMP is zero and
also the V2 is virtually grounded.
Therefore, i1 = if and v2 = v1 = 0
Integrating both sides with respect to time from 0 to t, we get
Thazhuva & Mani

The output voltage is directly proportional to the negative integral of the input voltage
and inversely proportional to the time constant RC.
If the input is a sine wave the output will be cosine wave. If the input is a square wave,
the output will be a triangular wave. For accurate integration, the time period of the
input signal T must be longer than or equal to RC.
Fig. 5, shows the output of integrator for square and sinusoidal inputs.
Fig. 5
Example - 3
Prove that the network shown in fig. 6 is a non-inverting integrator with

.
Thazhuva & Mani

Solution:
The voltage at point A is v O / 2 and it is also

the voltage at point B because different
input voltage is negligible.
vB = VO / 2
Therefore, applying Node current equation

at point B,
Fig. 6

Differentator:
A circuit in which the output voltage waveform is the differentiation of input voltage is
called differentiator.as shown in fig. 1.
Fig. 1
Thazhuva & Mani

The expression for the output voltage can be obtained from the Kirchoff's current
equation written at node v 2 .
Thus the output v o is equal to the

RC times the negative
instantaneous rate of change of
the input voltage v in with time. A
cosine wave input produces sine
output. fig. 1 also shows the
output waveform for different input
voltages.
The input signal will be

differentiated properly if the time
period T of the input signal is
larger than or equal to R f C.
T ≥ Rf C
As the frequency changes, the

gain changes. Also at higher
frequencies the circuit is highly
susceptible at high frequency Fig. 2
noise and noise gets amplified.
Both the high frequency noise and
problem can be corrected by
additing, few components. as
shown in fig. 2.
Voltage to current converter:
Fig. 3, shows a voltage to current converter in which load resistor RL is floating (not
connected to ground).
The input voltage is applied to the non-inverting input terminal and the feedback
voltage across R drives the inverting input terminal. This circuit is also called a current
series negative feedback, amplifier because the feedback voltage across R depends on
the output current iL and is in series with the input difference voltage vd.
Thazhuva & Mani

Writing the voltage equation for the
input loop.
v in = v d + v f
But v d » since A is very

large,therefore,
v in = v f
v in = R i in
i in = v in / R.
and since input current is zero.
i L = i in = v in ./ R
The value of load resistance does

not appear in this equation.
Therefore, the output current is
independent of the value of load Fig. 3
resistance. Thus the input voltage
is converted into current, the
source must be capable of
supplying this load current.
Grounded Load:
If the load has to be grounded, then the above circuit cannot be used. The modified
circuit is shown in fig. 4.
Since the collector and emitter currents are

equal to a close approximation and the input
impedance of OPAMP is very high,the load
current also flows through the feedback
resistor R. On account of this, there is still
current feedback, which means that the load
current is stabilized.
Since v d = 0
∴ v 2 = v 1 = v in
∴ i out = (v CC � v in ) / R
Thus the load current becomes nearly equal

to i out . There is a limit to the output current
that the circuit can supply. The base current
in the transistor equals i out / β dc . Since
the op-amp has to supply this base current
i out / β dc must be less than I out (max) of the Fig. 4
Thazhuva & Mani

op-amp, typically 10 to 15mA.
There is also a limit on the output voltage,

as the load resistance increases, the load
voltage increases and then the transistor
goes into saturation. Since the emitter is at
V in w. r. t. ground, the maximum load
voltage is slightly less than V in .
In this circuit, because of negative feedback VBEis automatically adjusted. For

instance, if the load resistance decreases the load current tries to increase. This means
that more voltage is feedback to the inverting input, which decreases VBE just enough
to almost completely nullify the attempted increase in load current. From the output
current expression it is clear that as Vin increases the load current decreases.

Another circuit in which load current increases as V in increases is shown in fig. 5.
The current through the first

transistor is
i = v in / R
This current produces a

collector voltage of v C =
v CC � i R = v CC � v in
Since this voltage drives the

non-inverting input of the
second op-amp. The
inverting voltage is v CC - v in to
a close approximation. This
implies that the voltage
across the final R is
v CC - (v CC - v in ) = v in
and the output current .
i out = v in / R
As before, this output current

must satisfy the Fig. 5
condition,that I out / β dc
must be less than the
I out (max) of the OPAMP.
Furthermore, the load
Thazhuva & Mani

voltage cannot exceed v CC -
v in because of transistor
saturation, therefore I out R
must be less than v CC -
v in .This current source
produces unidirectional load
current. fig. 6, shows a
Howland current source, that
can produce a bi-directional
load current.
Fig. 6
The maximum load current is V CC / R. In

this circuit v in may be positive or negative.
Lecture - 14: Applications
Current to voltage converter:
The circuit shown in fig. 1, is a current to voltage converter.
Thazhuva & Mani

Fig. 1
Due to virtual ground the current through R is zero and the input current flows
through Rf. Therefore,
vout =-Rf * iin
The lower limit on current measure with this circuit is set by the bias current of the
inverting input.
Example �1:
For the current to current converter shown in fig. 2, prove that
Fig. 2
Solution:
The current through R1 can be obtained from the current divider circuit.
Since, the input impedance of OPAMP is very large, the input current of OPAMP is
Thazhuva & Mani

negligible.
Thus,

Example - 2
(a). Verify that the circuit shown in fig. 3 has input impedance.
(b). If Z is a capacitor, show that the system behaves as an inductor.

(c). Find the value of C in order to obtain a 1H inductance if R 1 = R 2 = 1K.
Fig. 3
Solution:
Let the output of OPAMP (1) be v and the output of OPAMP (2) be v o . Since the
differential input voltage of the OPAMP is negligible, therefore, the voltage at the
inverting terminal of OPAMP (1)will be v i .
For the OPAMP (2),
Thazhuva & Mani

or,
(b). Let the input voltage be sinusoidal of frequency (ω / 2π)
If Z is a capacitor, then Z = 1 / ωC
Let L = C R 1 R 2
Therefore, and the system behaves as an inductor.
(c). Given R 1 = R 2 = 1 K, L = 1 H
Example - 3
Show that the circuit of fig. 4 is a current divider with i o = i i / ( 1 + R 2 + R 1 )

regardless of the load.
Thazhuva & Mani

Fig. 4
Solution:
since non-inverting and inverting terminals are virtually grounded.
Therefore, V 1 = V L .
Now applying KCL to node (1)
Now current is

Example – 4
(a). For the circuit shown in fig. 5 prove that
(b). Verify that if R3 / R4 = R1 / R2, the circuit is an instrumentation amplifier with

gain A = 1 + R2 / R1.
Thazhuva & Mani

Solution:
Here
Fig. 5
(b).
So in this condition circuits as an instrument amplifier with gain .
Example - 3
Obtain an expression of the type iO = Vi / R - VO / RO for the circuit shown in fig. 6.

Hence verify that if R4 / R3 = R2 / R1 the circuit is a V-I converter with RO =∞ and R =
R1 R5 / R2 .
Thazhuva & Mani

Fig. 6
Solution:
Here
iO = current through the resistor.
Thazhuva & Mani

where
So when
then,

Filters:
A filter is a frequency selective circuit that, passes a specified band of frequencies

and blocks or attenuates signals of frequencies out side this band. Filter may be
classified on a number of ways.
1. Analog or digital
2. Passive or active
3. Audio or radio frequency
Analog filters are designed to process only signals while digital filters process analog
signals using digital technique. Depending on the type of elements used in their
consideration, filters may be classified as passive or active.
Elements used in passive filters are resistors, capacitors and inductors. Active filters,
on the other hand, employ transistors or OPAMPs, in addition to the resistor and
capacitors. Depending upon the elements the frequency range is decided.
RC filters are used for audio or low frequency operation. LC filters are employed at
RF or high frequencies.
The most commonly used filters are these:
1. Low pass filters

2. High pass filter
Thazhuva & Mani

3. Band pass filter
4. Band reject filter.
5. All pass filter
Fig. 1, shows the frequency response characteristics of the five types of filter. The
ideal response is shown by dashed line. While the solid lines indicates the practical
filter response.
Fig. 1
A low pass filter has a constant gain from 0 Hz to a high cutoff frequency f H . Therefore, the
bandwidth is f H . At f H the gain is down by 3db. After that the gain decreases as frequency
increases. The frequency range 0 to f H Hz is called pass band and beyond f H is called stop
band.
Similarly, a high pass filter has a constant gain from very high frequency to a low
cutoff frequency f L . below f L the gain decreases as frequency decreases. At f L the
gain is down by 3db. The frequency range f L Hz to ∞ is called pass band and bleow
f L is called stop band.
Thazhuva & Mani


First Order Low Pass Filter:
Fig. 2, shows a first order low pass Butter-worth filter that uses an RC network for
filtering, opamp is used in non-inverting configuration, R1 and Rf decides the gain of
the filter.
According to voltage divider rule, the voltage at the non-inverting terminal is:
Fig. 2
Thazhuva & Mani

Thus the low pass filter has a nearly constant gain Af from 0 Hz to high cut off
frequency fH. At fH the gain is 0.707 Af and after fH it decreases at a constant rate with
an increases in frequency. fH is called cutoff frequency because the gain of filter at this
frequency is reduced by 3dB from 0Hz.
Filter Design:
A low pass filter can be designed using the following steps:
1. Choose a value of high cutoff frequency fH.

2. Select a value of C less than or equal to 1 µF.
3. Calculate the value of R using .
4. Finally, select values of R1 and RF to set the desired gain using

.
Example - 1
Design a low pass filter at a cutoff frequency of 1 kH z with a pass band gain of 2.
Solution:
Given fH = 1 kHz. Let C = 0.01 µF.
Therefore, R can be obtained as
A 20 kΩ potentiometer can be used to set the resistance R.
Since the pass band gain is 2, R1 and RF must be equal. Let R1 = R2 = 10 kΩ.

Low pass filter with adjustable corner frequency
One advantage of active filter is that it is often quite simple to vary parameter values.
As an example, a first-order low-pass filter with adjustable corner frequency is shown
in fig. 3.
Thazhuva & Mani

Fig. 3
The voltage at the opamp inputs are given by
Setting v + = v -, we obtain the voltage, v 1 , as follows:
where
The second opamp acts as an inverting integrator, and
Note that we use upper case letters for the voltages since these are functions of s. K
is the fraction of V 1 sent to the integrator. That is, it is the potentiometer ratio, which
is a number between 0 and 1.
The transfer function is given by
The dc gain is found by setting s = 0 (i.e., jω =0)
Thazhuva & Mani

The corner frequency is at KA 2 / RC. Thus, the frequency is adjustable and is

proportional to K. Without use of the opamp, we would normally have a corner
frequency which is inversely propostional to the resistor value. With a frequency
proportional to K, we can use a linear taper potentiometer. The frequency is then
linearly proportional to the setting of the potentiometer.
Example - 2
Design a first order adjustable low-pass filter with a dc gain of 10 and a corner
frequency adjustable from near 0 t0 1 KHz.
Solution:
There are six unknowns in this problems (RA, RF, R1, R2, R and C) and only three
equations (gain, frequency and bias balance). This leaves three parameters open to
choice. Suppose we choose the following values:
C = 0.1 µF
R = 10 KΩ
R 1 = 10KΩ
The ratio of R 2 to R 1 is the dc gain, so with a given value of R 1 = 10KΩ, R 2 must be

100 kΩ. We solve for A 1 and A 2 in the order to find the ratio, R F / R A .
The maximum corner frequency occurs at K = 1, so this frequency is set to 2π x

1000. Since R and C are known, we find A 2 = 6.28. Since A 2 and A 1 are related by
the dc gain, we determine A 1 / A 2 = 10 and A 1 = 62.8. Now, substituting the
expression for A 2 , we find
and since
we find R F / R A = 68. R A is chosen to achieve bias balance. The impedance attached

to the non-inverting input is 10 KΩ || 100 KΩ = 10 KΩ.
Thazhuva & Mani

Fig. 4
If we assume that R F is large compared with R A ( we can check this assumption

after solving for these resistors), the parallel combination will be close to the value of
R A . We therefore can choose R A = 10 KΩ. With this choice of R A , R F is found to be
680KΩ and bias balance is achieved. The complete filter is shwn in fig. 4.
Lecture - 16: Filters and Precision Diode

Second Order Low-Pass Butterworth filter:
A stop-band response having a 40-dB/decade at the cut-off frequency is obtained with

the second-order low-pass filter. A first order low-pass filter can be converted into a
second-order low-pass filter by using an additional RC network as shown in fig. 1.
Fig. 1 Fig. 2
The gain of the second order filter is set by R1 and RF, while the high cut-ff frequency
fH is determined by R2, C2, R3 and C3 as follows:
Thazhuva & Mani

Furthermore, for a second-order low pass Butterworth response, the voltage gain
magnitude is given by
where,
Except for having the different cut off frequency, the frequency response of the second
order low pass filter is identical to that of the first order type as shown in fig. 2.
Filter Design:
The design steps of the second order filter are identical to those of the first order filter
as given bellow:
1. Choose a value of high cutoff frequency fH.

2. To simplify the design calculations, set R2 = R3 = R and C2 = C3 = C.
Then choose a value of C less than 1 µF.
3. Calculate the value of R using .

4. Finally, because of the equal resistor (R2 = R3) and capacitor (C2 = C3)
values, the pass band voltage gain AF has to be equal to 1.586. This gain is
necessary to guarantee Butterworth response. Therefore, RF = 0.586 R1.
Hence choose a value of R1= 100 kΩ and calculate the value of RF.
First Order High Pass Butterworth filter:
Fig. 3, shows the circuit of first order high pass filter.This is formed by interchanging R
and C in low pass filter.
The lower cut off frequency is fL. This is the frequency at which the magnitude of the
gain is 0.707 times its pass band value. All frequencies higher than fL are pass band
frequencies with the highest frequency determined by the closed loop bandwidth of the
OPAMP.
Thazhuva & Mani

The magnitude of the gain of the filter is
Fig. 3
If the two filters (high and low) band pass are connected in series it becomes wide band
filter whose gain frequency response is shown in fig. 4.
Fig. 4

Precision Diodes:
If a sinusoid whose peak value is less than the threshold or cut in voltage V d (-0.6V)
is applied to the conventional half-wave rectifier circuit, output will remain zero. In
order to be able to rectify small signals (mV), it is necessary to reduce V d . By placing
a diode in the feedback loop of an OPAMP, the cut in voltage is divided by the open
Thazhuva & Mani

loop gain A of the amplifier. Fig. 5, shows an active diode circuit.
Fig. 5
Hence V D is virtually eliminated and the diode approaches the ideal rectifying
element. If the input V in goes positive by at least V D /A, then the output voltage (=A v d
) exceeds V D and D conducts and thus, provides a negative feedback. Because of
the virtual connection between the two inputs v O = v in -v d =v in - v D / A ≈ v in . Therefore,
the circuit acts as voltage follower for positive signals (above 60 µV=0.6 / 1*105)
when V in swing negatively, D is OFF and no current is delivered to the external load.
By reversing the diode, the active negative diode can be made.
Active Clippers:
By slightly modifying the circuit, an active diode ideal clipper circuit is obtained. Fig.
6, shows an active clipper which clips the input voltage below v R .
Fig. 6
When v in < V R , then v' is positive and D conducts. Under these conditions, the
OPAMP works as a buffer and the output voltage equals the voltage at non-inverting
terminal
V out = V R .
If v in > V R , then v' is negative and D is OFF and v O = v in R L / (R L + R) ≈ V i if R << R L
Thazhuva & Mani

Thus, output follows input for v in > V R and v O is clamped to V R if v in < V R by about 60
µV. Fig. 7, shows the output waveform of clipper circuit.When D is reverse biased a
large differential voltage may appear between inputs and the OPAMP must be
capable to withstand this voltage.
Fig. 7

Active Half Wave Rectifier:
The Active half wave rectifier is shown in fig. 8.
Fig. 8 Fig. 9
If vin is positive then output of the OPAMP becomes negative (the non inverting
terminal is grounded). Thus diode D2 conducts and provides a negative feedback.
Because of the feedback through D2 a virtual ground exists at the input. Thus diode D1
acts as open circuit. The output voltage under this condition is given by
vo = v - = 0.
If vin goes negative, then output of the OPAMP becomes positive. Thus D1 is
conducting and D2 is off. Thus, the circuit behaves as an inverting amplifier. The output
of the circuit is given by
Thazhuva & Mani

The resultant output voltage will be positive. If v in is a sinusoid, the circuit performs
half wave rectification. The transfer characteristic of the half wave active rectifier is
shown in fig. 9. The output does not depend upon the diode forward voltage (vd). Thus,
because of the high open loop gain of the OPAMP, the feedback acts to cancel the diode
turn-on (forward) voltage. This leads to improved performance since the diode more
closely approximates the ideal device.
Axis Shifting of the Half Wave Rrectifier:
The half wave rectified output waveform can be shifted along the vin axis. This is done
by using a reference voltage added to the input voltage of the rectifier as shown in fig.
10. This termed axis shifting. It adds or subtracts a fixed dc voltage to the input signal.
This process shifts the diode turn-on voltage point. If a negative reference voltage,
VREF, is applied to the circuit, the diode turns on when the input voltage is still
positive. This shifts the vout/ vin transfer characteristic to the right. If a positive
reference voltage is applied, the vout/ vin transfer characteristic shifts to the left. These
shifted characteristics are shown in fig. 10.
Fig. 10 Fig. 11
The input-output voltage characteristics can also be shifted up or down. This is termed
level shifting and is accomplished by adding a second OPAMP with a reference voltage
added to the negative input terminal as shown in fig. 11.
Thazhuva & Mani


Active Full Wave Rectifier:
Method 1:
A full wave rectifier, or magnitude operator, produces an output which is the absolute
value, or magnitude, of the input signal waveform. One method of accomplishing full
wave rectification is to use two half wave rectifiers. One of these operates on the
positive portion of the input and the second operates on the negative portion. The
outputs are summed with proper polarites. Fig. 1 illustrates one such configuration.
Note that the resistive network attached to the ouput summing opamp is composed
of resistors of higher value than those attached to the opamp that generates v 1 . This
is necessary since for negative v in , v 2 follows the curve shown above the node labled
v 2 . That is, as the input increases in a negative direction, v 2 increases in a positive
direction. Since the input impedance to the non-inverting terminal of the summing
opamp is high, the voltage, v+ is simply one half of v 2 (i.e., the two 100KΩ resistors
form a voltage divider). The voltage at the negative summing terminal, v-, is the
same as v+, and therefore is equal to v 2 / 2. Now when v in is negative, D 2 is open,
and the node v 1 is connected to the inverting input of the first opamp through a 5 KΩ
resistor. The inverting input is a virtual ground since the non-inverting input is tied to
ground through a resistor. The result is that the voltage divider formed by the 100 KΩ
and 5KΩ resistors. In order to achive a characteristic resembling that shown in the
figure, this voltage divider must have a small ratio, on the order of 1 to 20.
Fig. 1
Method 2:
Thazhuva & Mani

The method of full wave rectification discussed above requires three separate
amplifiers. One simpler circuit or active full wave rectifier, which makes use of only
two OPAMPs, is shown in fig. 2. It rectifies the input with a gain of R / R 1 ,
controllable by one resistor R 1 .
Fig. 2
When v in is positive then v' = negative, D 1 is ON and D 2 is virtual ground at the

input to (l). Because D 2 is non-conducting, and since there is no current in the R
which is connected to the non-inverting input to (2), therefore, V 1 =0.
Hence, the system consists of two OPAMP in cascade with the gain of A 1 equal to (-
R / R 1 ) and the gain of A 2 equal to (-R / R) = -1.
The resultant at voltage output is
v o = (R / R 1 ) v in > 0 (for v in > 0 voltage output of (1) )
Consider now next half cycle when v in is negative. The v' is positive D 1 is OFF and
D 2 is ON. Because of the virtually ground at the input to (2) V 2 = V 1 = V
Since the input terminals of (2) are at the same (ground) potential, the current
coming to the inverting terminal of (1) is as indicated in fig. 2.
The output voltage is v o = i R + v where i = v / 2R (because input impedance of

OPAMP is very high).
Thazhuva & Mani

The sign of v o is again positive because v in is negative in this half cycle. Therefore,
outputs during two half cycles are same; and full wave rectified output voltage is
obtained also shown in fig. 2.

Clampers:
Fig. 3, shows an active positive clamper circuit.
Fig. 3
The first negative half cycle produces a positive OPAMP output, which turns ON the
diode. This capacitor charges to the peak of the input with the polarity shown in fig. 3.
Just beyond the negative peak the diode turns off, the feedback loop opens, and the
virtual ground is lost. Therefore,
vout = vin + VP
Since VP is being added to a sinusoidal voltage, the final output waveform is shifted
positively through VP volts. The output wave form swing from 0 to 2VP as shows in fig.
4. Again the reduction of the diode-offset voltage allows clamping with low-level inputs.
During most of the cycle, the OPAMP operates in negative saturation. Right at the
negative input peak, the OPAMP produces a sharp positive going pulse that replaces
any change lost by the clamping capacitor between negative input peaks.
Thazhuva & Mani

Fig. 4

Comparators:
An analog comparator has two inputs one is usually a constant reference voltage V R
and other is a time varying signal v i and one output v O . The basic circuit of a
comparator is shown in fig. 5.
When the noninverting voltage is larger than the inverting voltage the comparator
produces a high output voltage (+V sat ). When the non-inverting output is less than
the inverting input the output is low (-V sat ). Fig. 5, also shows the output of a
comparator for a sinusoidal.
Thazhuva & Mani

Fig. 5
v O = -V sat if v i > V R
= + V sat if v i < V R
If V R = 0, then slightest input voltage (in mV) is enough to saturate the OPAMP and
the circuit acts as zero crossing detector as shown in fig. 6. If the supply voltages
are ±15V, then the output compliance is from approximate � 13V to +13V. The more
the open loop gain of OPAMP, the smaller the voltage required to saturate the
output. If v d required is very small then the characteristic is a vertical line as shown
in fig. 6.
Fig. 6
If we want to limit the output voltage of the comparator two voltages (one positive
and other negative) then a resistor R and two zener diodes are added to clamp the
output of the comparator. The circuit of such comparator is shown in fig. 7, The
transfer characteristics of the circuit is also shown in fig. 7.
Fig. 7
The resistance is chosen so that the zener operates in zener region. When V R = 0
then the output changes rapidly from one state to other very rapidly every time that
the input passes through zero as shown in fig. 8.
Thazhuva & Mani

Fig. 8
Such a configuration is called zero crossing detector. If we want pulses at zero

crossing then a differentiator and a series diode is connected at the output. It
produces single pulses at the zero crossing point in every cycle.

Schmitt Trigger:
If the input to a comparator contains noise, the output may be erractive when vin is
near a trip point. For instance, with a zero crossing, the output is low when vin is
positive and high when vin is negative. If the input contains a noise voltage with a peak
of 1mV or more, then the comparator will detect the zero crossing produced by the
noise. Fig. 1, shows the output of zero crossing detection if the input contains noise.
Fig. 1 Figure 19.2
This can be avoided by using a Schmitt trigger, circuit which is basically a comparator
with positive feedback. Fig. 2, shows an inverting Schmitt trigger circuit using OPAMP.
Because of the voltage divider circuit, there is a positive feedback voltage. When
OPAMP is positively saturated, a positive voltage is feedback to the non-inverting input,
this positive voltage holds the output in high stage. (vin< vf). When the output voltage is
Thazhuva & Mani

negatively saturated, a negative voltage feedback to the inverting input, holding the
output in low state.
When the output is +Vsat then reference voltage Vref is given by
If Vin is less than Vref output will remain +Vsat.
When input vin exceeds Vref = +Vsat the output switches from +Vsat to �Vsat. Then
the reference voltage is given by
The output will remain �Vsat as long as vin > Vref.
Fig. 3 Fig. 4
If vin < Vref i.e. vin becomes more negative than �Vsat then again output switches to
+Vsat and so on. The transfer characteristic of Schmitt trigger circuit is shown in fig. 3.
The output is also shown in fig. 4 for a sinusoidal wave. If the input is different than sine
even then the output will be determined in a same way.

Positive feedback has an unusual effect on the circuit. It forces the reference voltage
to have the same polarity as the output voltage, The reference. voltage is positive
when the output voltage is high (+v sat ) and negative when the output is low (�v sat ).
In a Schmitt trigger, the voltages at which the output switches from +v sat to �v sat or
vice versa are called upper trigger point (UTP) and lower trigger point (LTP). the
Thazhuva & Mani

difference between the two trip points is called hysteresis.
Fig. 5
The hysteresis loop can be shifted to either side of zero point by connecting a
voltage source as shown in fig. 5.
When V O = +V sat , the reference. Voltage (UTP) is given by
When V O = -V sat , the reference. Voltage (UTP) is given by
If V R is positive the loop is shifted to right side; if V R is negative, the loop is shifted to
left side. The hysteresis voltage V hys remains the same.
Non-inverting Schmitt trigger:
In this case, again the feedback is given at non-inverting terminal. The inverting
terminal is grounded and the input voltage is connected to non-inverting input. Fig. 6,
shows an non-inverting schmitt trigger circuit.
Thazhuva & Mani

Fig. 6
To analyze the circuit behaviour, let us assume the output is negatively saturated.
Then the feedback voltage is also negative (-V sat ). Then the feedback voltage is also
negative. This feedback voltage will hold the output in negative saturation until the
input voltage becomes positive enough to make voltage positive.
When v in becomes positive and its magnitude is greater than (R 2 / R 1 ) V sat , then the
output switches to +V sat . Therefore, the UTP at which the output switches to +V sat , is
given by
Simillarly, when the output is in positive saturation, feedback voltage is positive. To

switch output states, the input voltage has to become negative enough to make.
When it happens, the output changes to the negative state from positive saturation to
negative saturation voltage negative.
Thazhuva & Mani

When v in becomes negative and its magnitude is greater than R 2 / R 1 v sat , then the
output switches to -v sat . Therefore,
The difference of UTP and LTP gives the hysteresis of the Schmitt trigger.
In non inverting Schmitt trigger circuit, the β is defined as

Example - 1
Design a voltage level detector with noise immunity that indicates when an input
signal crosses the nominal threshold of � 2.5 V. The output is to switch from high to
low when the signal crosses the threshold in the positive direction, and vice versa.
Noise level expected is 0.2 VPP, maximum. Assume the output levels are VH = 10 V
and VL = 0V.
Solution:
For the triggering action required an inverting configuration is required. Let the
hysteresis voltage be 20% larger that the maximum pp noise voltage, that is, Vhys =
0.24V.
Thus, the upper and lower trigger level voltages are -2.5 ± 0.12, or
UTP = 2.38 V and LTP = -2.62 V
Since the output levels are VH and VL instead of +Vsat and �Vsat, therefore,
hysteresis voltage is given by
or
Thazhuva & Mani

and
The reference voltage V R can be obtained from the expression of LTP.
Given that VL = 0, and LTP= -262, we obtain
VR = (1 + R2 / R1) LTP = (1 + 1 / 40.7) (-2.62) = - 2.68 V
We can select any values for R2 and R1 that satisfy the ratio of 40.7. It is a good
practice to have more than 100 kΩ for the sum of R1 and R2 and 1 kΩ to 3kΩ for the
pull up resistor on the output. The circuit shown in fig. 7 shows a possible final
design. The potentiometer serves as a fine adjustment for VR, while the voltage
follower makes VR to appear as an almost ideal voltage source.
Fig. 7
Lecture - 19: Schmitt Trigger and Relaxation Oscillator

Example – 1
The Schmitt trigger circuit of fig. 1 uses 6V zener diodes with V D = 0.7 V. if the
threshold voltage V 1 is zero and the hysteresis is V H = 0.2V. Calculate R 1 / R 2 and
VR.
Thazhuva & Mani

Fig. 1
Solution:
The normal output voltage of Schmitt trigger circuit will be either +V O or �V O ,

Where, V O = V Z + V D
= 6.7 V
Let the output voltage be +V O . The voltage V 1 can be obtained from the voltage
divider circuit consisting of R 1 and R 2 .
When v in > V 1 then v o = -V O

Therefore, upper trigger point voltage will be given by,
Similarly, the lower trigger point voltage will be given by,
Therefore, the hysteresis voltage is
Thazhuva & Mani

Since, the threshold voltage v 1 is zero,
Therefore,
Relaxation Oscillator:
With positive feedback it is also possible to build relaxation oscillator which produces
rectangular wave. The circuit is shown in fig. 2.
Fig. 2
In this circuit a fraction R 2 / (R 1 +R 2 ) = β of the output is feedback to the non-inverting input

terminal. The operation of the circuit can be explained as follows:
Assume that the output voltage is +V sat . The capacitor will charge exponentially
toward +V sat . The feedback voltage is +βV sat . When capacitor voltage exceeds
+βV sat the output switches from +V sat to -V sat . The feedback voltage becomes -V sat
and the output will remain �V sat . Now the capacitor charges in the reverse direction.
When capacitor voltage decreases below �βV sat (more negative than �βV sat ) the
output again switches to +V sat .This process continues and it produces a square
wave. Under steady state conditions, the output voltage and capacitor voltage are
shown in fig. 2. The frequency of the output can be obtained as follows:
The capacitor charges from -β V sat to +β V sat during time period T/2. The capacitor
charging voltage expression is given by
Thazhuva & Mani

This square wave generator is useful in the frequency range of 10Hz to 10KHz. At
higher frequencies, the slew rate of the OPAMP limits the slope of the output square
wave.
Thazhuva & Mani

Operational Amplifiers

Transféré par

Informations du document

Description originale:

Titre original

Copyright

Formats disponibles

Partager ce document

Partager ou intégrer le document

Options de partage

Avez-vous trouvé ce document utile ?

Ce contenu est-il inapproprié ?

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

Operational Amplifiers

Transféré par

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS

Lecture - 1: Operational Amplifiers

Differential amplifier is a basic building block of an op-amp. The function of a

Thazhuva & Mani

The differential amplifiers are of different configurations.

The four differential amplifier configurations are following:

1. Dual input, balanced output differential amplifier.

Thazhuva & Mani

Lecture -1: Operational Amplifiers

Applying KVL to the base emitter loop of the transistor Q1.

Thazhuva & Mani

VCE = VCC + VBE � ICRC (E-2)

The value of ICQ can be obtained from equation (E-1).

Thazhuva & Mani

Lecture - 2: Operational Amplifiers

Thazhuva & Mani

Applying KVL in two loops 1 & 2.

Substituting current relations,

Thazhuva & Mani

The output voltage V O is given by

Substituting i e1 , & i e2 in the above expression

Lecture - 2: Operational Amplifiers

Differential input resistance is defined as the equivalent resistance that would be

Thazhuva & Mani

The factor of 2 arises because the re' of each transistor is in series.

Output resistance is defined as the equivalent resistance that would be measured at

RO1 = RO2 = RC (E-5)

Lecture - 2: Operational Amplifiers

Thazhuva & Mani

a. Determine the voltage gain.

The ac emitter resistance

Ro1 = Ro2 = 2.2 k Ω

For the dual input, balanced output differential amplifier of Example-1:

Thazhuva & Mani

Substituting IC = ICQ = 0.988 mA, we get

Lecture - 3: Difference Amplifiers

Inverting & Non � inverting Inputs:

In differential amplifier the output voltage vO is given by

Thazhuva & Mani

Common mode Gain:

The output voltage, therefore can be expressed as

Thazhuva & Mani

Date sheet always specify CMRR in decibels CMRR = 20 log CMRR.

It is equal to first term. Hence for an amplifier with r = 1000, a 1m V difference of

Lecture - 3: Difference Amplifiers

Thazhuva & Mani

The output voltage gain in this case is given by

Differential amplifier with swamping resistors:

Thazhuva & Mani

Lecture - 3: Difference Amplifiers

Thus, ICQ = 0.988 mA

Repeat Example-1 for single input, balanced output differential amplifier.

Thazhuva & Mani

Lecture - 4: Biasing of Differential Amplifiers

Thazhuva & Mani

The collector current, I C3 in transistor Q 3 is fixed because no signal is injected into

As seen in I E expressions, the current depends upon V BE3 . If temperature changes,

Thazhuva & Mani

Therefore, the current I E3 is constant and independent of temperature because of the

Lecture - 4: Biasing of Differential Amplifiers

The voltage at the base of transistor Q B is

Thazhuva & Mani