Terrestrial Based Navigation Systems Conventional terrestrial Reference Frame (CTRF): ECEF on a ellipsoidal earth  axis rotates w earth

VHF Omnidirectional Range (VOR) H: orthometric ht

 VOR uses VHF radio (108-118MHz). Directional transmission uses direct amplitude h: ellipsoidal/geodetic ht
modulation of the VHF carrier by phase shifted 30Hz signals (on different radials different N: geoid ht
phase shift). e: deflection of vertical
 Omnidirectional transmission of the 30Hz reference signal frequency modulates (FM) a ϕ: geodetic latitude
9960Hz audio subcarrier first, before amplitude modulating (AM) the VHF carrier. ϕ’: angle SOA: geocentric
 In practice, the directional signal with a rotating phase in the 30Hz signal is created using latitude
a combination of two quadrature phased modulating signal transmissions radiating from
Ellipse:
two orthogonally placed antennas.
Uses TOA ranging measurements. Consist of Space, Ctrl & User segments. Transmit 2 carrier

Area, A=πab ; Eccentricity , e=√ 1−b2 /a2 ; Flattening, f =1−b/a

 Receiver determines which radials of the VOR the aircraft is on by measuring the phase
angle difference between the reference signal and the directional signal.  OBS (Omni
Bearing selector) – to select target radials, TO/FROM – tells if selected bearing is away
or from the VOR station, CDI (Course Deviation Indicator)
Distance Measuring Equipment (DME)
 Principle: Based on ranging measurement using the round-trip propagation time of radio
signal from the aircraft to the DME beacon and back. The a/c is the interrogator and the
DME station is a radio transponder with a fixed delay in response of 50 us.
 R=c* (t-50us)/2  Lateral distance D =
√ R2−H 2
Instrument Landing System (ILS) Localizer – tracks r/w centreline, Glideslope – tracks 3deg
freq signals, L1 (fL1=1575.42MHz) carry nav msg & SPS code sigs; L2(f L2=1227.60MHz) used
to measure ionospheric delay. Sig has 3 components: Carrier-RF sinusoidal sig with freq fL1 or
fL2. Ranging Code- Pseudorandom Sigs(PRN) uniquely assg to each sat. Allow precise range
meas, Each sat sends C/A & P code. [C/A code] 1.023MHz PRN code modulated to L1 carrier
phase, repeats every 1023 bits/chips (per ms) Duration of 1μs. Diff C/A for each sat, & hence
sat can be identified. [P code] Modulate to both L1 & L2 carrier, 10.23MHz, is encrypted to Y
code for anti-spoof, repeats aft 1 week. Nav Data- Bi code msg of data bits tt describe GPS
sat orbits, clk corrections & other data. 1 data bit frame consists of 1500 bits split into 5 sub-
frames of 300bits (transmitted over 6s each) each. 5 sub-frames are, 1: GPS time & date, 2 &
3: ephmeris (allow recv to calc sat location, valid for 4 hrs), 4 & 5: Almanac (info on all sat,
location & PRN no., & assists the recv in determining which sat to look for) Each subframe
has 1/25 of whole almanac→recv muz rcv 25 frames to complete data, 12.5mins. Navigation
message is modulo 2 added to C/A code. 20 C/A codes per Navigation Bit.
GPS signals: •In e presence of natural noise & interference, e precision of pseudorange
measurement is a few m. This remarkable ability due to e auto-correlation properties of e
spread spectrum codes.
•Allow satellites to simultaneously use a single transmission frequency: X-corr properties
ECEF coordinate:-rotates with Earth and hence fixed wrt Earth.
-ECI (Earth Centered Inertial): system is an inertial coord system; hence e user locn varies with Earth’s rotn.
-ECI used frequently for satellite orbit state calculations, the ECEF can also be used w/o any complication. GIMBALED MECHANIZATION
-Major diff is in expressing satellite orbits representation, which is relatively fixed in ECI, but varies linearly
with Earth’s rotation speed in the ECEF system.
Definition of Height: •To define ht, we need e reference: the ultimate level surface, Mean sea level (MSL).
-A level surface is perpendicular to the plumb line or the gravity level (complicated and varying).
-Geoid: level surface which reflects variations in e Earth’s g field caused by geological formations &
topographic relief. By convention, the geoid height is measured from the ellipsoid to the geoid.
ECEF Coordinates of User
•Given the geodetic coordinates λ, ϕ and h of the GPS user, find the ECEF coordinates u = (x u,yu,zu).
-Using the vertical cross section (r-z plane)of Earth through poles, NS is normal to the elliptic curve and is
given by its gradient vector at N(rn,zn). NS is also defined by the latitude angle ϕ.

r 2 z2 2r n 2 zn
f ( r , z )= → NS=∇ f r , z i+ 2 j
•Carry all the ancillary data required for position fixing.
glideslope. Use combination of radio signals. 3 antennaes – VOR/LOC, Glideslope & Marker • GPS send 50 bits per second of navigation data but occupies over 2,000,000 Hz (large + −1 ( n n ) =
a2 b 2 a2
beacon (OM, MM, IM). Antennaes shielded from VHF comms radio aerials.
Long Range Navigation (LORAN-C) (operates on 100kHz – ground and sky wave
propagation characteristics). Measures TDOA not absolute time. Requires 3 stations (1
bandwidth)-enable precise ranging, the rejection of signal noise, and same frequency of all
satellites.  Spread spectrum code == C/A code(x(t)) or P code (y(t)) b
master, 2 slaves) to get an ambiguous fix. •For this to be parallel to cosϕi+sinϕj,

2r n b22 zn 2
STRAPDOWN MECHANIZATION

2 2
= 2 n
→ z n=
r ta n ϕ=(1−e )r n tan ϕ
a cosϕ b sinϕ a
r z2
2
f ( r , z )= 2 + 2 −1=0
•Using ellipse eqn ;

Linear Model for Position

Let be 1st guess of user position and receiver clock bias.
a b
Initial estimate 2
corrected pseudorange – initial estimate
a 2
a2 ( 1−e 2 ) sin2 ϕ
PRN r n2 = ; z n
2
= 2 2
;
1+ ( 1−e2 ) tan 2 ϕ 1−e sin ϕ
ENU: GPS Signals
SV transmit 2 microwave signals
1. L1 frequency (1575.42MHz) carries the navigation message and the Standard Positioning Service
(C/A) code signals
Satellite Geometry
Let acosλ −1 y u
2. L2 frequency (1227.60MHz) is used to measure the ionospheric delay by Precise Positioning Service

+h cosλcosϕ (PPS) equipped receivers capable of reading P-code.

){
tan for x u ≥ 0

(
Signal consists of 3 components
2 2
√1+(1−e ) tan ϕ xu
1. Carrier: RF sinusoidal signal with frequency fL1 or fL2
2. Ranging code: PRN assigned to each satellite that have good autocorrelation and crosscorrelation

xu properties. Allows precise range measurements using C/A code or P-code

[]
Dilution of Precision
asinλ C/A Code: modulates the L1 carrier phase (using BPSK)

+h sinλcosϕ ; λ= 180o + tan −1 y u for x <0 , y ≥

PDOP = ;  The C/A code is a repeating 1.023MHz Pseudo Random Noise (PRN) Code. This noise-like code
TDOP=;
Geometric DOP= Position Estimation yu = 2 2
modulates the L1 carrier signal, "spreading" the spectrum over a 1 MHz bandwidth. The C/A code
repeats every 1023 bits or chips(per 1millisecond). The duration is about 1 μs.
RMS 3D position error=
RMS Clock bias estimation error=
RMS 3D position and clock bias estimation error=
Error Sources: •Satellite clock –Errors in modelling of e satellite clock offset and drifts using a
2nd order polynomial
•Satellite orbit –Errors tt exist within e Keplerian representation of e satellite ephemeris
z u ECEF
√1+(1−e ) tan ϕ xu u u  There is a different C/A code PRN for each SV. GPS satellites are often identified by their PRN
number, the unique identifier for each pseudo-random-noise code. The C/A code that modulates the
L1 carrier is the basis for the civil SPS. Chip width or wave length is about 300m
2
in ENU form: •Multipath –Signals bounce off nearby surfaces before being received by antenna. Causes a
delay resulting in range error. a (1−e ) sinϕ y P-Code: Modules the L1 & L2 carrier phase

+h sinϕ −180o + tan−1 u for x u< 0 , yu <

 The P-Code is a very long (seven days) 10.23MHz PRN code (10 times that for a C/A-code)
Where, •Signal degradation–Foliage, Buildings, anything in line of sight
 Chip width is about 30m (more accurate)
•Atmospheric errors–Ionosphere and Troposphere
–Electrons in atmosphere induce errors to signals. Ionospheric delay can be accounted for by
using dual frequency (L1/L2). Dependent on total electron count (max during day), frequency
2
√1−e sin ϕ2
xu  In the Anti-Spoofing (AS) mode of operation, the P-Code is encrypted into the Y-Code
 The encrypted Y-Code requires a classified AS Module for each receiver channel and is for use only
of signal. Ionospheric phase delay (m), by authorized users with cryptographic keys

−40.3∗TEC World Geodetic System- WGS-84


•The standard physical model of the Earth for GPS applications. It provides an ellipsoidal model of Earth. P codes repeat after one week. P(Y)-Code is the basis for the PPS
I ϕ= ; TEC=∫ ne ( l ) dl -For more accurate and smaller error, realization is WGS-84 and even more precise, the International

f2
Terrestrial Reference Frame (ITRF) defined by the scientific community.
–The concern is the latitude, longitude and height of a GPS receiver.
–The cross sections of the Earth parallel to the equatorial plane are circular with a mean equatorial radius of

I ϕ =c ∆ t I
Ionospheric time delay,
Concept of ranging
–GPS use time-of-arrival (TOA) ranging measurements to determine user location. TOA
ranging involves measurement of time taken for e radio signal transmitted by a signal emitter
at a known location to reach the user receiver location.
–The user distance R=c∆t1 (∆t1: signal propagation time; c: speed of light)
-This does not pinpoint the location, measurements from more than one signal emitters at
different known locations necessary.
–Synchronized clocks at the signal emitter and the user receiver equipment are essential for
measurements and any timing offset need to be known.
–There are ranging measurement errors due to propagation effects.
–They give an estimate of the user location within an error space.
–3D positioning achieved using TOA measurements from multiple satellites.
Code phase measurement: Transit time associated with a specific code transition of the signal
from a satellite received at time t.
6378.137km. On the other hand, cross sections of the Earth normal to the equatorial plane are ellipsoidal.
–In an ellipsoidal cross section containing the polar z axis, the semi-major axis a is the mean equatorial
radius while the semi-minor axis b is 6356.7523142km along z.
Calendars and Time
•Generation of precisely synchronized signals aboard spacecraft and measurement of their transmission time
is at e heart of GPS. Synchronization error of 1μs in a satellite clock will introduce an error of 300m in the
position estimate. If we require meter-level position estimates, synchronization error among the clocks must
be controlled to be less than 10ns
•We must distinguish between concepts of an instant of time (an “epoch’) and an interval or duration of time
between two events
•The accuracy of a clock to measure time would depend upon: (1) error in the initial frequency setting
(accuracy) and (2) ability to maintain the rate of periodic process (frequency stability).
•Earth’s diurnal rotation has been the basis for timekeeping since the beginning. In fact, the rotation rate of
the Earth has served as the source for definition of time interval of one second until recently. The motion has
given two time scales:
–Solar time –a complete revolution of the Earth with respect to the Sun
–sidereal time –the time the Earth takes to rotate once on its axis relative to the stars much farther away than

τ
ts(t- ): the emission time stamped on the signal.
the Sun (Mean solar day is approximately 4 mins longer than a sidereal day)

1 mean sidereal day = 23h 56min 4.0954s = 86 164.09954s of mean solar time
Finding r, θ
1 d of mean solar time = 24h = 86400 mean solar sec = 1+1/365.25 = 1.002737 days of mean sidereal time
1.Mean anomaly M
tu(t): arrival time measured by receiver clock M=2πt/T
 (pseudorange): measured apparent range determined from apparent transmit time Reference time- Julian date (JD): •For time difference calculation
2. Eccentric anomaly E
–A common time reference for all events calculated in days from this zero-time reference is more useful.
M = E – e sin E
ρ ( t )=c [ t u ( t )−t s ( t−τ ) ] •The Julian date zero-time reference is 12 noon (12:00 UT) on January 1st, 4713 B.C.
•Day count from the Julian date zero-time reference:
3. True anomaly θ
–365 days in every normal year and 366 in every leap year. The day number sequence (Jan..Dec) in the
current year at noon on last day of each month is 31.5, 59.5(+1), 90.5(+1), 120.5(+1), 151.5(+1), 181.5(+1),
t u ( t )=t +δ t u (t ) (Receiver clock bias)
212.5(+1), 243.5(+1), 273.5(+1), 304.5(+1), 334.5(+1), 365.5 (+1). (+1) is for day count in a leap year.

θ 1+e E
JD = JDref + days + UT

t s ( t−τ )=( t−τ ) +δ t s ( t−τ )

bias)
(Satellite clock
(h ours+
minutes seconds
60
+ tan
36002
=
) 1−e tan
2 () √