Tshwane University of Technology: Design of A 2.4 GHZ Wifi Array Patch Antennas

TSHWANE UNIVERSITY OF
TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
Course: INDUSTRIAL PROJECT IV
PROJECT REPORT:
DESIGN OF A 2.4 GHZ WIFI ARRAY PATCH

ANTENNAS
Student Name: Ivandro Peterson Alves Rodrigues
Student No.: 205342834
Internal supervisor: MR. Guillaume Noel
External or co-supervisor:
Receiving date: 07\05\2009

Industrial Project Report by IPA Rodrigues, 2010
1 Chapter 1 7
1.1 Introduction 7
1.2 Problem statement 7
1.3 User requirement specification 8
1.4 Study objectives 9
1.5 Definitions 9
1.5.1 Resonant Frequency 9
1.5.2 Operating Frequency (FO) 9
1.5.3 Impedance Bandwidth (BW) 9
1.5.4 Minimum Gain 10
1.5.5 Patch Length (L) 10
1.5.6 Patch Width (W) 10
1.6 Importance and benefits of the study 10
1.7 Budget 10
Table1: Cost of the development project. 11
1.8 Conclusion 11
1.8.1 Chapter 2: Literature Review 11
1.8.2 Chapter 3: Design, Analysis and Methods 11
1.8.3 Chapter 4: Implementation and Results 11
1.8.4 Chapter 5: Conclusion and Recommendations 12
2 Chapter 2 12
2.1 Literature review 12
2.1 Introduction 12
2.2 Properties of a Basic Microstrip Patch 13
2.3 Dimensions 14
2.4 Impedance Matching 14
2.5 Fundamental Specifications of Patch Antennas 15
2.5.1 Radiation Pattern 15
2.5.2 Polarization 17
2.5.3 Bandwidth 18
2.6 Patch antennas arrays 19
2.6.1 Introduction 19
2.6.2 Antenna arrays, radiation pattern and array factor 20
2.6.3 Influence of the number of elements on the array factor 21
2.6.4 Influence of the element spacing on the array factor 22
2.6.5 Influence of the radiating element properties on the overall radiation pattern 24
2.7 Proposed practical design or strategy 26
2.8 Conclusion 28
3 Chapter 3 29
3.1 Introduction 29
3.2 Design or development of project 29
3.2.1 Feeding Technique 29
3.3 Design procedure 31
3.4 Implementation of the project 33
3.4.1 Input Parameters for the simulation: 33
3.5 Simulation results 34
3.5.1 Patch dimensions 34
3.5.2 Project box and antenna 34
3.5.3 Return Loss 35
3.5.4 Input Impedance 35
3.5.5 VSWR in band 36
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3.5.6 VSWR versus frequency 36

3.5.7 - Gain (dBi) versus the center frequency. 37
3.5.8 Summarized results 38
3.6 Conclusion 40
4 .Chapter 4 40
4.1 Introduction 40
4.2 Testing procedure 40
4.3 Results of the tested product / procedure 41
4.4 Necessary changes encountered 44
4.5 Conclusion 45
5 Chapter 5 46
5.1 Introduction 46
5.2 Conclusions and recommendations 46
5.3 Financial cost and time evaluation 46
5.4 Proposed further study 46
5.5 A.1 Final Gantt chart 47
5.6 A.2 Bibliography 48
5.7 A.3 Detail designs 49
5.8 A.4 Software 50
5.9 A.5 Datasheets 51
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Table of Figures
Page no.
Figure1:Structure of a Microstrip Patch Antenna.........................................................................12
Figure2:Patch antenna in its basic form........................................................................................13
Figure 3: Voltage, current and impedance distribution along the patch´s resonance length.........15
Figure 4: Typical radiation pattern of a simple square patch........................................................16
Figure 5: Field configuration of a microstrip patch antenna. (b) Side view. (c) Top view...........17
Figure 6: Patch antenna return loss bandwidth..............................................................................19
Figure 7: Four-element microstrip antenna array..........................................................................20
Figure 8: Topology of a linear array..............................................................................................21
Figure 9: Directivity of a 2 (red), 5 (green) and 10 (blue) element array with 0.4λ element
spacing...........................................................................................................................................22
Figure 10: Directivity of a 5 elements array with 0.2 (red), 0.3 (green) and 0.5 (blue) times λ
element spacing.............................................................................................................................23
Figure 11: Directivity of a 5 elements array with 0.5 (red), 0.75 (green) and 1 (blue) times λ
element spacing.............................................................................................................................24
Figure 12: Directivity of a 5 elements array with 1 (red), 1.5 (green) and 2 (blue) times λ element
spacing...........................................................................................................................................24
Figure 13: Directivity of an isotropic source (red) in a 5 elements array (green) with.................25
Figure 14: Directivity of a dipole in a 5 elements array with 0.4λ element spacing.....................25
Figure 15: PCB layout of single rectangular patch antenna..........................................................26
Figure 16: PCB of single rectangular patch antenna....................................................................27
Figure 17:PCB layout of 4 array element patch antennas............................................................27
Figure 18: PCB of 4 array element patch antennas......................................................................28
Figure 19: Rectangular, probe feed patch antenna........................................................................30
Figure 20:Top view of Microstrip Patch Antenna.........................................................................32
Figure 21: Necessary antenna specifications for simulations.......................................................33
Figure 22: Patch dimension as well location for the probe feed...................................................34
Figure 23: The Project box antenna, illustrating the location of the patch...................................34
Figure 24: Return loss, illustrating the lowest reflection coefficient at the desired frequency.....35
Figure 25: Illustration of the approximation of the center frequency 2.4 GHz to the desired input
impedance 50 ohm.........................................................................................................................35
Figure 26:Illustration of VSWR vs. frequency in band.................................................................36
Figure 27: Illustration of VSWR versus the center frequency......................................................36
Figure 28: Gain of patch antennas at desired frequency...............................................................37
Figure 29: Antenna array specifications for simulation................................................................38
Figure 30: Polar pattern plot..........................................................................................................39
Figure 31: 3-D pattern plot............................................................................................................40
Figure 32: Network analyzer been calibrated................................................................................41
Figure 33: Return loss obtained from the network analyzer.........................................................42
Figure 34: Input impedance obtained from the network analyzer.................................................42
Figure 35: 46,43Ω obtained from the network analyzer...............................................................43
Figure 36:-22dB gain shown at the right corner............................................................................43
Figure 37:Improved antenna at 2.2 GHz.......................................................................................45
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Declaration of authenticity
I, Ivandro Peterson Alves Rodrigues, hereby declare that the work presented in this
report is my own work and that no unauthorized copies of other student’s work or
any publication are included in this document. I also submit myself to any
disciplinary action to be taken if I should transgress by presenting someone else’s
work as my own.
Signed:
____________________________
Date:
____________________________
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Abstract
The lightweight construction of microstrip antennas and the suitability for integration with
microwave integrated circuits are two more of their numerous advantages. Additionally the
simplicity of the structures makes this type of antennas suitable for low cost manufacturing. The
aim of this project is to design and to implement a microstrip patch antenna array that meets the
requirements for WI-FI application. The array consists of four linearly arranged single antennas
with an element spacing of quarter wavelength. The antenna was designed to operate in the ISM
band at 2.4GHz. For the design of the antenna two software are used MATLAB and Sonnet for
simulation. Using an application called Sonnet Antenna design written in MATLAB it inputs
different fundamental specifications of the antenna, such as Frequency, input impedance and
material properties for simulation. After optimizing and implementing a single element antenna
that achieved satisfactory measurement results, the antenna array was worked out.
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1 Chapter 1
1.1 Introduction
The design of an efficient wide band small size antenna, for recent wireless applications, is a
major challenge. The idea of this project is to design and build a WIFI 2.4 GHZ array patch
antennas that can increase the gain of a single antenna. A patch antenna typically consists of a
radiating plate suspended above a ground plane. Patch or microstrip antennas exhibit
characteristics such as light weight and a low profile, which makes these antennas desirable for
many applications, various approaches to patch antenna design exist, but these approaches may
require a large degree of mathematical ability and knowledge of the technology’s physics in
order to produce an initial design for a particular patch configuration. Alternatively, design by
simulation may require expensive simulation software and finding an appropriate design is a
time-consuming. As a result, all these approaches may require significant time and effort to
produce an initial design.
1.2 Problem statement

Despite the previously mentioned features, microstrip patch antennas suffer from several
inherent disadvantages of this technology , namely, they have small bandwidth and relatively
poor radiation efficiency resulting from surface wave excitation and conductor and dielectric
losses. For good antenna performance, a thick dielectric substrate having a low dielectric
constant is desirable since this provides better efficiency, larger bandwidth and better radiation.
However, such a configuration leads to a larger antenna size. In order to design a compact
microstrip patch antenna, higher dielectric constants must be used which are less efficient and
result in narrower bandwidth. Hence a compromise must be reached between antenna
dimensions and antenna performance.Lower gain and lower power handling capacity which are
one of the problems of microstrip antennas can be overcome by using an array configuration for
the elements.
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1.3 User requirement specification

The design specifications for the patch antennas must include the following parameters:
1.3.1- Frequency of Operation (F0): The resonant frequency of the antenna, this must be
selected taking into consideration the antenna application. For this project 2.4 GHZ was
chosen as the frequency of operation for WI-FI application. The patch antenna operating
frequency could also be described as the design or centre frequency of the patch antenna. It is
logical to define the operating frequency as:
F 0=( f 1+f 2)÷ 2

where f 1∧f 2 are the maximum and minimum frequencies at which the antenna’s VSWR
characteristic is less than 2.
1.3.2- Dielectric constant of the substrate (

 r ). The dielectric constant refers to the relative
permittivity of the dielectric medium between the patch and the ground-plane. Depending on
the material we use to build the antenna some of the parameters and results may change with
the dielectric constant value.
1.3.3- Height of the dielectric substrate (h).
1.3.4- The ground plane and metal patch size.
1.3.5- The thickness of the substrate sometimes referred as the patch height denotes the
distance between the top of the ground plane surface and the bottom of the radiating patch
element.
λ
The rectangular patch antenna is a half-wavelength cavity resonator ( 2 ) where the
fundamental TM mode is mostly used. A rectangular shape was chosen for this project
because they tend to have the largest impedance bandwidth, simply because they are larger
than the others shapes, it is also easy for analysis and simple to construct.
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1.4 Study objectives

Parallel to the rising importance of wireless communication systems and personnel IT
(information technologies) services ( Bluetooth) increasing efforts are devoted to the design and
implementation of microstrip structures from miniaturized electronic circuits to the antenna
arrays. One major objective of this project is the design of microstrip antenna arrays which are
attractive candidates for adaptive systems in the present and future communication
systems(smart antennas). Smart antenna arrays are one way to accommodate this increasing
demand for bandwidth and quality. These antenna arrays provide numerous benefits to service
providers. However, the processing requirements for smart antenna arrays are many orders of
magnitude greater than those for single antenna implementations.
1.5 Definitions
This section presents the definitions of terms commonly associated with patch antennas. These
terms are used throughout this report and formally defined here for easy reference..
1.5.1 Resonant Frequency

The resonant frequency will be defined as the frequency, in the TM10 mode of operation, where
the imaginary part of the impedance is equal to 0. Resonance usually occurs shortly after a
resistive peak, with the imaginary part of the input impedance passing through 0 with a negative
slope.
1.5.2 Operating Frequency (FO)

The patch antenna operating frequency could also be described as the design or centre frequency
of the patch antenna. It is logical to define the operating frequency as:
F 0=( f 1+f 2)÷ 2
Where f 1∧f 2 are the maximum and minimum frequencies at which the antenna’s VSWR
characteristic is less than 2.
1.5.3 Impedance Bandwidth (BW)

Impedance bandwidth is usually defined as a percentage:
Bandwidth = (f2 - f1)\(Fr) * 100, where Fr is the resonant frequency and f 1, f 2 are the
frequencies between which the magnitude of the reflection coefficient of the antenna is less than
or equal to 1/3 (VSWR <= 2).
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1.5.4 Minimum Gain

The minimum gain is the antenna’s lowest gain value over the frequency band of operation
(where VSWR <= 2).
1.5.5 Patch Length (L)

The length of a patch antenna denotes the length of the non-radiating sides of the rectangular
antenna.
The value of the length can be both greater and less than the orthogonal width dimension.
1.5.6 Patch Width (W)

The width of a patch antenna denotes the length of the radiating sides of the rectangular antenna.
1.6 Importance and benefits of the study

This project is designed to implement antenna arrays (smart antennas) the term smart antenna
incorporates all situations in which a system is using an antenna array and the antenna pattern is
dynamically adjusted by the system as required. Therefore a lot can be learned from this project
starting from the basics of patch antennas to more complex knowledge such as antenna arrays.
The current demand for smart antennas to increase channel capacity in the fast-growing area of
mobile communications has reignited the research and development efforts in this area around
the world.
1.7 Budget
The costs related the entire development of the project is shown in table below. Tremendous
efforts have been put in order to keep costs to the minimum in order to maintain cost-
effectiveness of the end-product. Even do this is not the total budget of the project but the
development of the project is estimated to be approximately R 3000 after complete . This leads
to the conclusion that the product will successfully reach its cost effectiveness targets.
Item No. Description Quantity Unit Price Total Price

CABLE ASSEMBLY SMA-M
1 TO SMA-F BLKHD. 8 R 45 R360
SMA-(F) CONNECTOR FOR
2 PCB MOUNT 5 R 18.50 R 92.5
10
ROGERS RO4003C SUBSTRATE,

3 60mil, 1EDCu/1EDCu, 12"x18" 1 R 1054.35 R 1054.35
PATCH ANTENNA PCB
4 PROTOTYPE
5 ANTENNA ARRAY PCB
6 T-CONNECTORS 3 270
Total R
Table1: Cost of the development project.
OBS:NOT FINALISED
1.8 Conclusion
In this chapter, a basic knowledge regarding microstrip patch antennas was discussed as well
some of the advantages and disadvantage of Microstrip patch antennas. They have attracted
widespread interest due to their small size, light weight, low profile and low cost as well as to
the fact that they are simple to manufacture, mechanically robust, easily integrated with circuits,
therefore, their further use in specific systems is limited because of their relatively narrow
bandwidth but can be overcome by using an array configuration for the elements.
1.8.1 Chapter 2: Literature Review

This chapter discusses the literature needed before building the antennas. In this chapter, the
procedure for designing a rectangular microstrip patch antenna is explained.
1.8.2 Chapter 3: Design, Analysis and Methods

This chapter explains the development and implementation of the antennas and also how it was
tested.
1.8.3 Chapter 4: Implementation and Results

This chapter shows the results reached in the study. It consists of the simulation results from the
software used and also results from the hardware implementation.
1.8.4 Chapter 5: Conclusion and Recommendations

This chapter evaluates the success of this project and gives some recommendations for
improvement.
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2 Chapter 2
2.1 Literature review

The main focus will be on explaining the general properties of patch antennas by using the
simple rectangular probe feed patch as the feeding technique. It will cover topics including:
principles of operation, impedance matching, radiation pattern and related aspects, bandwidth,
and efficiency.
2.1 Introduction
In this chapter, the procedure for designing a rectangular microstrip patch antenna is explained.
A rectangular microstrip patch antenna is designed for 2.4 GHz WI-Fi application. In its most
basic form, a microstrip patch antenna consists of a radiating patch on one side of a dielectric
substrate which has a ground plane on the other side as shown in Figure 3.1. The patch is
generally made of conducting material such as copper or gold and can take any possible shape.
The radiating patch and the feed lines are usually photo etched on the dielectric substrate.
Figure1:Structure of a Microstrip Patch Antenna
2.2 Properties of a Basic Microstrip Patch
A microstrip or patch antenna is a low profile antenna that has a number of advantages over
other antennas, it is lightweight, inexpensive, and easy to integrate with accompanying
electronics. While the antenna can be 3D in structure the elements are usually flat, that is why
sometimes is also called, planar antennas. The following drawing shows a patch antenna in its
basic form: a flat plate over a ground plane (usually a PC board). The center conductor of a coax
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serves as the feed probe to couple electromagnetic energy in and/or out of the patch. The electric
field distribution of a rectangular patch excited in its fundamental mode is also indicated.
Figure2:Patch antenna in its basic form
The electric field is zero at the center of the patch, maximum (positive) at one side, and
minimum (negative) on the opposite side. It should be mentioned that the minimum and
maximum continuously change side according to the instantaneous phase of the applied signal.
The electric field does not stop abruptly at the patch's periphery as in a cavity; rather, the fields
extend the outer periphery to some degree. These field extensions are known as fringing fields
and cause the patch to radiate. Some popular analytic modeling techniques for patch antennas are
based on this leaky cavity concept. Therefore, the fundamental mode of a rectangular patch is
often denoted using cavity theory as the TM10 mode. TM stands for transversal magnetic field
distribution. This means that only three field components are considered instead of six. The field
components of interest are: the electric field in the z direction, and the magnetic field
components in x and y direction using a Cartesian coordinate system, where the x and y axes are
parallel with the ground plane and the z- axis is perpendicular. In general, the modes are
designated as TMnmz . The z value is mostly omitted since the electric field variation is
considered negligible in the z axis. Hence TMnm remains with n and m the field variations in x
and y direction. The field variation in the y direction (impedance width direction) is negligible;
thus m is 0. And the field has one minimum to maximum variation in the x direction (resonance
length direction); thus n is 1 in the case of the fundamental. Hence the notation TM10.
2.3 Dimensions
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The resonant length determines the resonant frequency and is about λ\2 for a rectangular patch
excited in its fundamental mode. The patch is, in fact, electrically a bit larger than its physical
dimensions due to the fringing fields. The deviation between electrical and physical size is
mainly dependent on the PC board thickness and dielectric constant. A better approximation for
the resonant length is:
This formula includes a first order correction for the edge extension due to the fringing fields,
with:
 L = resonant length
 = wavelength in PC board
 = wavelength in free space
 = dielectric constant of the PC board material

Other parameters that will influence the resonant frequency are:
 Ground plane size
 Metal (copper) thickness
 Patch (impedance) width.
2.4 Impedance Matching

Looking at the current (magnetic field) and voltage (electrical field) variation along the patch,
the current is maximal at the center and minimal near the left and right edges, while the electrical
field is zero in the center and maximal near the left and minimal near the right edges. The figures
below clarify these quantities.
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Figure 3: Voltage, current and impedance distribution along the patch´s resonance length.
There is a point where the impedance is 50 ohm somewhere along the resonant length. This point
can be calculated by taking random measurements along the plate or use specific software which
optimizes the desired feed probe to achieve 50 ohm impedance matching.
2.5 Fundamental Specifications of Patch Antennas
2.5.1 Radiation Pattern
The patch's radiation at the fringing fields results in a certain far field radiation pattern. This
radiation pattern shows that the antenna radiates more power in a certain direction than others
direction. The antenna is said to have certain directivity. This is commonly expressed in dB. The
fringing fields at the radiating edges can be viewed as two radiating slots placed above a ground
plane. Assuming all radiation occurs in one half of the hemisphere, this results in a 3 dB
directivity. This case is often described as a perfect front to back ratio; all radiation towards the
front and no radiation towards the back. This front to back ratio is highly dependent on ground
plane size and shape in practical cases. Another 3 dB can be added since there are 2 slots. The
slots are typically taken to have a length equal to the impedance width (length according to the
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y-axis) of the patch and a width equal to the substrate height. Such a slot typically has a gain of
about 2 to 3 dB . This results in a total gain of 8 to 9 dB.
The rectangular patch excited in its fundamental mode has a maximum directivity in the
direction perpendicular to the patch (broadside). The directivity decreases when moving away
from broadside towards lower elevations. The 3 dB beam width (or angular width) is twice the
angle with respect to the angle of the maximum directivity, where this directivity has rolled off 3
dB with respect to the maximum directivity. The figure below shows an example of radiation
pattern.
Figure 4: Typical radiation pattern of a simple square patch.
To describe how the patch radiates arises we will take a look at the electric field configuration.
Thereby assume that the patch is spaced a small fraction of a wavelength above the ground
plane and that the electric field shows no variations along the width of the microstrip structure,
radiation may then be described mostly to the fringing fields of the open circuited edges of the
patch as shown in figure below.
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Figure 5: Field configuration of a microstrip patch antenna. (b) Side view. (c) Top view.
2.5.2 Polarization
The plane where the electric field varies is also known as the polarization plane. The basic patch
is linearly polarized since the electric field only varies in one direction. This polarization can be
either vertical or horizontal depending on the orientation of the patch. A transmit antenna needs a
receiving antenna with the same polarization for optimum operation.
The patch mentioned yields horizontal polarization, as shown. When the antenna is rotated 90°,
the current flows in the vertical plane, and is then vertically polarized. There is another kind of
polarization circular polarization. In a circular polarized antenna, the electric field varies in two
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orthogonal planes (x and y direction) with the same magnitude and a 90° phase difference. The
result is the simultaneous excitation of two modes, the TM10 mode (mode in the x direction)
and the TM01 (mode in the y direction).
2.5.3 Bandwidth
A general law for antennas states that the lowest achievable quality factor of an antenna is
inversely related to the antenna volume. This implies that the absolute bandwidth increases with
increasing patch substrate height, since the bandwidth is in inverse proportion to the quality
factor. Another important substrate parameter that influences the bandwidth is the permittivity.
Only impedance bandwidth is specified most of the time, it is important to realize that several
definitions of bandwidth exist impedance bandwidth, directivity bandwidth, polarization
bandwidth, and efficiency bandwidth. Directivity and efficiency are often combined as gain
bandwidth. Impedance bandwidth/return loss bandwidth this is the frequency range wherein the
structure has a usable bandwidth compared to a certain impedance, usually 50 Ω. The impedance
bandwidth depends on a large number of parameters related to the patch antenna element itself
and the type of feed used. The plot below shows the return loss of a patch antenna and indicates
the return loss bandwidth at the desired S11/VSWR (S11wanted/VSWR wanted). The bandwidth
is typically limited to a few percent. This is the major disadvantage of basic patch antennas.
Therefore several techniques to improve the bandwidth exist such as building the antennas in
array.
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Figure 6: Patch antenna return loss bandwidth
The Directivity/gain bandwidth is the frequency range wherein the antenna meets a certain
directivity/gain requirement. The Polarization bandwidth is the frequency range wherein the
antenna maintains its polarization.
2.6 Patch antennas arrays
2.6.1 Introduction
For some applications single element patch antennas are unable to meet the gain or radiation
pattern requirements. Combining several single patch antenna elements in an array can be a
possible solution. An antenna array (often called a 'phased array') is a set of 2 or more antennas.
The signals from the antennas are combined or processed in order to achieve improved
performance over that of a single antenna. The antenna array can be used to:
 Increase the overall gain
 Provide diversity reception
 Cancel out interference from a particular set of directions
 "Steer" the array so that it is most sensitive in a particular direction
 Determine the direction of arrival of the incoming signals.
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In general, the performance of an antenna array for many application increases with the number
of antennas (elements) in the array; the disadvantages is the increased cost, size, and
complexity. The figure below shows an example of antenna arrays.
Figure 7: Four-element microstrip antenna array.
2.6.2 Antenna arrays, radiation pattern and array factor

The antenna elements can be arranged to form a 1 or 2 dimensional antenna array. The overall
radiation pattern changes when several antenna elements are combined in an array. This is due to
the so called "array factor" this factor quantifies the effect of combining radiating elements in
an array without the element specific radiation pattern taken into account. The overall radiation
pattern of an array is determined by this array factor combined with the radiation pattern of the
antenna element. The overall radiation pattern results in a certain directivity and thus gain linked
through the efficiency with the directivity. Directivity and gain are equal if the efficiency is
100%.
Arrays can be designed to radiate in either broadside, radiation perpendicular to array
orientation(the z-axis) or end fire, radiation in the same direction as the array orientation (the y-
axis). For linear arrays the radiation patterns given below are a cross section in the y-z plane.
The 3-dimensional radiation pattern of a linear array is a rotation around the y-axis of the
patterns given.
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Figure 8: Topology of a linear array.
The array factor depends on the number of elements, the element spacing, amplitude and phase
of the applied signal to each element. The number of elements and the element spacing
determine the surface area of the overall radiating structure. This surface area is called aperture.
A larger aperture results in a higher gain. The aperture efficiency quantifies how efficient the
aperture is used.
2.6.3 Influence of the number of elements on the array factor

The array directivity increases with the number of elements. Figure 9 shows the directivity of 3
arrays with 2 (red), 5 (green) and 10 (blue) elements. The element spacing is 0.4 times the
wavelength for all the arrays in figure 9. The number of side lobes and the side lobe level
increase with the number of elements. It is important to note that due to the array factor
definition there are 2 main lobes. There is a main lobe at theta 0° (positive z- axis) and a main
lobe at theta 180°/180° (negative z- axis).
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Figure 9: Directivity of a 2 (red), 5 (green) and 10 (blue) element array with 0.4λ element spacing.
2.6.4 Influence of the element spacing on the array factor

The element spacing has a large influence on the array factor as well. A larger element spacing
results is a higher directivity. The element spacing is generally kept smaller than λ\2 to avoid the
occurrence of grating lobes. A grating lobe is another unwanted peak value in the radiation
pattern of the array. Figures 10, 11 and 12 show the array factors of a 5 element array with
various element spacing.
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Figure 10: Directivity of a 5 elements array with 0.2 (red), 0.3 (green) and 0.5 (blue) times λ element spacing.
Increasing the element spacing towards λ results in an increased directivity and grating lobe
effect with a maximum grating lobe amplitude equal to the main lobe magnitude at an element
spacing λ as shown in figure 11.
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Figure 11: Directivity of a 5 elements array with 0.5 (red), 0.75 (green) and 1 (blue) times λ element spacing.
An element spacing beyond λ becomes impractical and results in multiple unwanted

grating lobes as shown in figure 12.
Figure 12: Directivity of a 5 elements array with 1 (red), 1.5 (green) and 2 (blue) times λ element spacing.
2.6.5 Influence of the radiating element properties on the overall

radiation pattern
Examples of total radiation patterns are given below in order to give an idea of the effect of the
radiating element radiation pattern on the overall array radiation pattern. Figure 11 shows the
radiation pattern of an isotropic element (red), the array factor and the combined radiation
pattern (both green). In this case the overall radiation pattern is the same as the array factor since
an isotropic element radiates the same amount of power in all directions.
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Figure 13: Directivity of an isotropic source (red) in a 5 elements array (green) with
0.4 l element spacing.
Figure 14 shows the radiation pattern of a dipole (red), the same array factor as in figure 12
(green) without dipoles and the overall radiation pattern of the array with dipoles (blue).The
overall radiation pattern is clearly different from the array factor the directivity has increased
with the dipole’s directivity and the overall radiation pattern is slightly modified due to the
dipole’s radiation pattern.
Figure 14: Directivity of a dipole in a 5 elements array with 0.4λ element spacing.
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2.7 Proposed practical design or strategy

One of the first questions that arise is: How many antenna elements shall be implemented? The
higher the number of elements, the better is the performance of such a system. Unfortunately,
with increasing the element number the cost and the computational load increase too. I decided
to build four element array. The designed antenna is an 4X1 linear array. The first step in the
design is to specify the dimensions of a single microstrip patch antenna. The patch conductor can
be assumed at any shape, but generally simple geometries are used, and this simplifies the
analysis and performance prediction. The half-wavelength rectangular patch element is chosen as
the array element for this project (as commonly used in microstrip antennas) . After designing a
single rectangular patch antenna a PCB layout was done to compare the results obtained from
simulation and the results measured using the network analyser. Figure below shows the PCB
layout of a single antenna .
Figure 15: PCB layout of single rectangular patch antenna
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Figure 16: PCB of single rectangular patch antenna.
After testing a single rectangular patch antenna the array was worked out using 4 elements
antenna array in which the distance between elements were λ/4 (3,125 cm).The PCB layout is
shown in figure below.
Figure 17:PCB layout of 4 array element patch antennas.
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Figure 18: PCB of 4 array element patch antennas.
2.8 Conclusion
In this chapter, several concepts related to microstrip patch antenna technology have been
summarized. The fundamental characteristics of microstrip patch antennas have been presented,
as well as the basics properties of linear patch antennas. Definitions of the basic set of
specifications that allow the user to understand and write a set of requirements for a specific
application were defined. A brief overview of antenna array aspects has also been given. The
main objective of this chapter was to give some basic background into a very broad and
complex domain within antenna theory without the mathematics behind. Also a summarized
practical steps were introduced before the final project is finalized.
3 Chapter 3
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3.1 Introduction
This chapter explains the design and implementation of the antennas and also how it was
simulated using MATLAB and SONNET antenna design for single patch antenna and PCAAD
(Personal Computer Aided Antenna Design) to simulate the 4 element array.
3.2 Design or development of project

The design of the entire antenna array started with the design of a single patch antenna that
resonate at the center frequency of 2.4 GHz. A rectangular shape was chosen for this project
because they tend to have the largest impedance bandwidth, simply because they are larger than
the others shapes, it is also easy for analysis and simple to construct. From the design
specifications the rectangular patch antenna must include the following parameters:
1- Frequency of Operation (F0): The resonant frequency of the antenna, this must be selected
taking into consideration the antenna application. For our case we are designing for WIFI
application and frequency of operation is 2.4GHZ.
2- Dielectric constant of the substrate(symbol). The dielectric constant of the material for our
case is 2.2. We chose this typical value specifically for simulation purposes. Depending on the
material we use to build the antenna some of the parameters and results may change with the
dielectric constant value.
3-Height of the dielectric substrate (h): the height was chosen to be 1.57mm.
Hence parameters of the design are:

f 0 = 2.4GHZ,  r =3.38, h =1.57mm.
3.2.1 Feeding Technique

Several feed techniques can be applied in patch antennas: these can be classified into edge fed,
probe feed (coaxial feed), aperture coupled, and proximity coupled. These can be further
simplified into direct (edge and probe) and noncontact (aperture and proximity-coupled)
methods. For this project I use the coaxial feed or probe feed technique which will be discussed
below.
3.2.1.1 Probe feed
The probe feed or coaxial feed is a very common technique used for feeding Microstrip patch
antennas. A schematic diagram representing this configuration is shown in Figure 14, the inner
conductor of the coaxial connector extends through the dielectric and is soldered to the radiating
29
patch, while the outer conductor is connected to the ground plane. The probe or feeding pin is
usually the inner conductor of a coaxial line; hence, probe feeding is often referred to as a
coaxial feed. The probe position provides the impedance control. Because of the direct contact
between the feed transmission line and the patch antenna, probe feeding is referred to as a direct
contact excitation mechanism.
Figure 19: Rectangular, probe feed patch antenna.
The main advantage of this type of feeding is that the feed can be placed at any desired location
inside the patch in order to match with its input impedance. This feed method is easy to fabricate
and has low spurious radiation. On the other hand it provides narrow bandwidth and is difficult
to model since a hole has to be drilled in the substrate and the connector protrudes outside the
ground plane, thus not making it completely planar for thick substrates. Also, for thicker
substrates, the increased probe length makes the input impedance more inductive, leading to
matching problems. The non-contacting feed techniques solve these problems.
3.3 Design procedure

The transmission line model will be used to design the antenna. The heart of a microstrip
antenna is the upper conductor - the patch of finite dimensions. This patch can be considered to
30
be an open ended transmission line of length Lp and width Wp. The amplitude of the surface
currents becomes significant when the signal frequency is close to resonance. By taking only the
fundamental mode into account, the resonant frequency can be calculated by:
CO
f 0=
2×(Lp+2 ∆ Lp)√ ∈ eff
where ∆ Lp is the equivalent length extension that accounts for the fringing fields at the two
open ends, and ∈ eff is the effective relative permittivity.
The parameters described above were determined by using the following procedures:
f 0 = 2.4GHZ ,  r =3.38, h =1.53mm.

c
w
 r  1)
2 f0
The patch width (W) is given by: 2
The width of a patch antenna denotes the length of the radiating sides of the rectangular antenna.
c  3x108 f 0  2.4GHz
Substituting for and we get W=42.233mm. and an Effective
Dielectric constant
 r eff:
Substitution for
 r =3.38, W=42.233mm and h=1.53mm we get  r eff =3.615
Effective length (Leff ) of the antenna is given by
c
Leff 
2 f 0  eff
Leff
Which gives =32.872mm.
31
Determining the length Extension ( L ): the length extension is given by the equation below.
w 
( eff  0.3)   0.264 
L  0.412 h  h 
w 
( eff  0.258)   0.8 
 h 
Substituting the values of W=42.233mm, h =1.53mm and

 r eff =3.615 we get L =0.714mm
L  Leff  2L
Determining the actual length of the patch gives L=31.44mm.
The transmission line model is applicable to infinite ground planes only, but for practical
considerations, it is essential to have a finite ground plane. It has been shown by that similar
results for finite and infinite ground plane can be obtained if the size of the ground plane is
greater than the patch dimensions by approximately six times the substrate thickness all around
the periphery. Hence, for this design, the ground plane dimensions would be given as:
Lg=6×h+L=6×(1.53)+33=42.18mm
Lg=6×h+L=6×(1.53)+33=53.18mm
Figure 20:Top view of Microstrip Patch Antenna
3.4 Implementation of the project

32
In this project two software tools are used MATLAB and Sonnet for single patch antenna and to
simulate four array patch antenna a software called PCAAD (Personal Computer Aided
Antenna Design) was used.Using an application called Sonnet Antenna design written in
MATLAB it inputs different fundamental specifications of the antenna, such as Frequency input,
input impedance and material properties for simulation. The following picture illustrates the
necessary input to simulate our design:
Figure 21: Necessary antenna specifications for simulations
3.4.1 Input Parameters for the simulation:

1. Freq: 2.4 GHz
2. Zin: 50 ohm
3. Permittivity: 9
4. Dielectric Loss Tangent : 0.0013
5. Substrate Thickness : 61.81 (mils)=1.57mm
After simulation the program returns six output results, which are the patch dimensions, antenna
dimensions, return loss, input impedance, VSWR in band, and VSWR versus frequency. Below
33
are the different respective plots and respective measurements (by default all the measurements
are in inch).
3.5 Simulation results

3.5.1 Patch dimensions
Figure 22: Patch dimension as well location for the probe feed
3.5.2 Project box and antenna
Figure 23: The Project box antenna, illustrating the location of the patch.
3.5.3 Return Loss
34
Figure 24: Return loss, illustrating the lowest reflection coefficient at the desired frequency.
3.5.4 Input Impedance
Figure 25: Illustration of the approximation of the center frequency 2.4 GHz to the desired input impedance 50
ohm.
3.5.5 VSWR in band
35
Figure 26:Illustration of VSWR vs. frequency in band.
3.5.6 VSWR versus frequency
Figure 27: Illustration of VSWR versus the center frequency.
3.5.7 - Gain (dBi) versus the center frequency.
36
Figure 8: illustrutation of VSWR versus the center frequency.
Figure 28: Gain of patch antennas at desired frequency.
Figure 11: Gain of 2.4 GHZ patch antenna.
3.5.8 Summarized results
After simulation the following outputs were obtained.
37
Antenna specifications Mechanical dimensions:

Patch Length = 1.2932 (in). Height = 2 (in) = 50 mm
Patch Width = 1.7279 (in). Width = 25 (in) = 635mm
Resonance Frequency = 2.4 GHz. Length = 15 (in) = 381 mm
Resonance Frequency Error = 0 %
Input Impedance = 53.7775 Ohms
Input Impedance Error = 7.555 % Obs: 1 inch = 25.4 mm
Gain=6.486 dBi
VSWR 2:1 Bandwidth = 1.25
Probe Offset = 0.43883 (in).
To simulate a four array patch antenna a software called PCAAD (Personal Computer Aided
Antenna Design) was used. The results given by this software are illustrate in the figures
below ,in which we visualizes the radiation pattern of 4 uniform array patch antennas, in polar
rectangular representation. Using PCAAD it inputs different fundamental specifications of the
antenna array, such as Frequency ,number of elements, element spacing, element type for
simulation. The following picture illustrates the necessary input to simulate our design:
Figure 29: Antenna array specifications for simulation
After entering the fundamental specifications of the array the software compute the directivity as
can been seen from figure 20 which is given as 8,4dB. The next step is to choose the pattern plot
38
type which is given in figure below by clicking in select pattern type. Rectangular planar plot is
first selected . Below are the different respective plots.
Figure 21: Selecting the graphic to be plotted
Figure 30: Polar pattern plot
39
Figure 31: 3-D pattern plot
3.6 Conclusion
This chapter explains the design and implementation of the antennas and also demonstrate
how a single patch antenna can be simulated using MATLAB and SONNET antenna design.
After single antenna was simulated and tested a 4X1 array antenna was designed using PCAAD
(Personal Computer Aided Antenna Design). Gain, Bandwidth and radiation patterns have been
computed and plotted over a frequency at 2.4 GHz. A comparison between simulation and
results obtained from the network analyzer will be discussed in the next chapter.
4 .Chapter 4
4.1 Introduction
software used and also results from the hardware implementation. A comparison between
simulation and results obtained from the network analyzer will be discussed in the in this chapter
as well.
4.2 Testing procedure

The input impedance of the antenna has been measured with a network analyzer system HP
8753D over a frequency range up to 6 GHz. To get reliable and precise measurement results with
the network analyzer we have to calibrated it first to have precise measurements.
40
Figure 32: Network analyzer been calibrated.
Beside the input impedance in the Smith chart, gain ,and return loss have also been measured.
4.3 Results of the tested product / procedure

The first test I performed on the antennas was a simple S11 test on a network analyzer , the return
loss variations obtained via MATLAB and SONNET are used to compare with the measurement
of a single patch antenna in the network analyzer, and are shown in Fig.31 and 32, respectively
as it is clearly observed that the results have similar characteristics.
41
Figure 33: Return loss obtained from the network analyzer
The input impedance is obtained from the smith chart in the network analyzer and was about
46.43Ω as shown in figure below:
Figure 34: Input impedance obtained from the network analyzer
42
Figure 35: 46,43Ω obtained from the network analyzer
Figure 36:-22dB gain shown at the right corner
43
For some applications single element patch antennas are unable to meet the gain or radiation
pattern requirements. Combining several single patch antenna elements in an array can be a
possible solution. The signals from the antennas are combined or processed in order to achieve
improved performance over that of a single antenna. The antenna array will be used to increase
the overall gain, and it will be demonstrated on the measurements of the 4 array element.
4.4 Necessary changes encountered

When I built the first antenna the frequency was short around 1.5 GHz when was supposed to be
2.4 GHz and that could been explained by not taken in to consideration the size of the ground
plane. The dimension of the ground plane can be obtained if the size of the ground plane is
greater than the patch dimensions by approximately six times the substrate thickness all around
the periphery.
Lg=6×h+L=6×(1.53)+33=42.18mm
Lg=6×h+L=6×(1.53)+33=53.18mm
By using this formulas I was able to improve the frequency off the antenna to 2.2 GHz as we
can see from the measurements in the network analyzer.
44
Figure 37:Improved antenna at 2.2 GHz
4.5 Conclusion
software used and also results from the hardware implementation. Some comparisons were
made between the practical measurements and the results obtained from simulation as well some
mistakes and possible solutions were also discussed.
Designing and constructing these antennas gave me valuable experience with practical
patch antenna design and measurement considerations.
OBS:THIS REPORT IS NOT YET FINALIZED
45
5 Chapter 5
5.1 Introduction
Write a short summary / overview of what is going to be discussed in chapter 5 only.
5.2 Conclusions and recommendations

Write an overall conclusion on the whole project, i.e. why certain parts of the project were
successful and why certain parts of the project were not successful.
NB!NB!: The conclusions should be on the project itself and not so much on what you have
learned.
Also recommend what should be the changes or focus for similar projects in the future.
5.3 Financial cost and time evaluation

Compare the final budget (show table) with the original planned budget in paragraph 1.7 and
explain any differences.
Compare the time frame in which the project was completed with the original Gant chart and
explain any delays in the completion of the project.
5.4 Proposed further study

State what can be looked at in the future on this project.
46
Appendix
5.5 A.1 Final Gantt chart
Put it here!
47
5.6 A.2 Bibliography
[1] http://www.toolbase.org/home-building -topics/Energy-Efficiency/Solar-water- Heaters,

Accessed on [put date].
[2] SRCC (Solar Rating and Certifying Corporation) 407-638-1537 Directory of SRCC certified
solar collector and WaterHeating System ratings, July 1998.
[3] NAHB research centre, Green Builders Guide, Renewable energy, solar Space Heating and
cooling.
[4] U.S Department of energy's, Get Your Power from the sun,a Consumers Guide to buying
Solar water systems.
[5]
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
………...
[6]
48
5.7 A.3 Detail designs
49
5.8 A.4 Software
Put in this section only if software has been developed.
50
5.9 A.5 Datasheets
Only put in special datasheets that is referred to in the main part of the report.
51

Tshwane University of Technology: Design of A 2.4 GHZ Wifi Array Patch Antennas

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Tshwane University of Technology: Design of A 2.4 GHZ Wifi Array Patch Antennas

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TSHWANE UNIVERSITY OF

Course: INDUSTRIAL PROJECT IV

DESIGN OF A 2.4 GHZ WIFI ARRAY PATCH

Student Name: Ivandro Peterson Alves Rodrigues

Student No.: 205342834

Internal supervisor: MR. Guillaume Noel

Receiving date: 07\05\2009

3.5.6 VSWR versus frequency 36

1.2 Problem statement

1.3 User requirement specification

F 0=( f 1+f 2)÷ 2

1.3.2- Dielectric constant of the substrate (

1.4 Study objectives

1.5.1 Resonant Frequency

1.5.2 Operating Frequency (FO)

1.5.3 Impedance Bandwidth (BW)

1.5.4 Minimum Gain

1.5.5 Patch Length (L)

1.5.6 Patch Width (W)

1.6 Importance and benefits of the study

Item No. Description Quantity Unit Price Total Price

ROGERS RO4003C SUBSTRATE,

1.8.1 Chapter 2: Literature Review

procedure for designing a rectangular microstrip patch antenna is explained.

1.8.2 Chapter 3: Design, Analysis and Methods

1.8.3 Chapter 4: Implementation and Results

software used and also results from the hardware implementation.

1.8.4 Chapter 5: Conclusion and Recommendations

2.1 Literature review

Figure1:Structure of a Microstrip Patch Antenna

2.2 Properties of a Basic Microstrip Patch

Figure2:Patch antenna in its basic form

 = wavelength in free space

 = dielectric constant of the PC board material

2.4 Impedance Matching

2.5 Fundamental Specifications of Patch Antennas

2.5.1 Radiation Pattern

Figure 4: Typical radiation pattern of a simple square patch.

Figure 6: Patch antenna return loss bandwidth

2.6 Patch antennas arrays

Figure 7: Four-element microstrip antenna array.

2.6.2 Antenna arrays, radiation pattern and array factor

Figure 8: Topology of a linear array.

2.6.3 Influence of the number of elements on the array factor

2.6.4 Influence of the element spacing on the array factor

An element spacing beyond λ becomes impractical and results in multiple unwanted

2.6.5 Influence of the radiating element properties on the overall

2.7 Proposed practical design or strategy

Figure 15: PCB layout of single rectangular patch antenna

Figure 16: PCB of single rectangular patch antenna.

Figure 17:PCB layout of 4 array element patch antennas.

Figure 18: PCB of 4 array element patch antennas.

3.2 Design or development of project

Hence parameters of the design are:

3.2.1 Feeding Technique

3.2.1.1 Probe feed

Figure 19: Rectangular, probe feed patch antenna.

3.3 Design procedure

f 0 = 2.4GHZ ,  r =3.38, h =1.53mm.

Substituting the values of W=42.233mm, h =1.53mm and

Figure 20:Top view of Microstrip Patch Antenna

3.4 Implementation of the project