Environmental Chemistry

air: d.1 primary air pollution; d.2 & d.9 ozone depletion; d.3 greenhouse effect and global warming; d.4 acid rain; d.8 smog
Pollutant Natural source Human source Health effect Ozone Solution
Greenhouse
Acid rain
Smog
carbon monoxide CO incomplete oxidation of incomplete combustion prevents -- catalytic converter:
methane: of fossil fuels: haemoglobin from CO + NO  CO2 + ½N2
CH4 + 1½O2  CO2 + C8H18 + 8½O2  8CO + carrying oxygen (lean burn engine)
2H2O 9H2O (carboxyhaemoglobin) (thermal exhaust reactor)
carbon dioxide CO2 respiration of animals combustion of fossil global warming: greenhouse effect -
aerobic decomposition fuels & biomass extinction of species (50%)
-rising sea levels (naturally acidic rain)
-melting of polar ice
water vapour H2O evaporation of ocean/lake -- as above greenhouse effect -
nitrogen oxides NOx lightning internal combustion respiratory irritant, ozone depletion catalytic converter
biological processes engine (high respiratory tract greenhouse effect lean burn engine (low air:fuel)
(aerobic bacteria) temperature): infections acid rain EGR (lower temperatures)
N2 + O2  2NO photochemical smog
N2O bacteria/lightning -- as above greenhouse effect as above
(6%)
NO bacteria (80%) car/jet engines (20%) as above ozone depletion as above
NO2 from NO from NO as above acid rain as above
photochemical smog
sulfur oxides SO2 volcanoes combustion of coal respiratory irritant, acid rain alkaline scrubbing:
oxidation of H2S: (containing FeS/FeS2 respiratory tract reducing smog CaO + SO2  CaSO3 (dry)
2H2S + 3O2  2SO2 + /amino acids) infections: Ca(OH)2 + SO2  CaSO3 + H2O
2H2O smelting of sulfide ores: SO2 + H2O  H2SO3 removal of S compounds in coal
(CuS/Ag2S/PbS/ZnS) + skin irritation (wash in solvent eg CS2)
O2  metal oxide + SO2 limestone based fluidised beds
(coal burnt on bed: S  CaSO3/4)
SO3 SO2 + ½O2  SO3 SO2 + ½O2  SO3 as above acid rain as above
reducing smog
particulates dust storms asbestos affects respiratory reducing smog electrostatic precipitation
forest fires soot from combustion system, lung diseases (high voltage ionises gas particles 
 Environmental Chemistry
volcanoes dust electrons collect onto particulates 
pollen/fungal spores metallic particles attract to + plates)
hydrocarbons CxHy plants – rice unburnt fuel / solvents benzene derivatives: greenhouse effect catalytic converter
CH4 (emit terpenes) cows / sheep coma/brain, cancer (18%) (heat burns unburnt hydrocarbons)
photochemical smog
chlorofluorocarbons CCl2F2 -- refrigerants more UV: (greenhouse effect) ban CFCs / find alternatives
propellants sunburn / skin cancer ozone depletion (eg hydro(chloro)fluorocarbons,
foaming agents cataracts / blindness hydrocarbons)
solvents -must have low reactivity/toxicity,
-phytoplankton die non-flammable, no weak C-Cl bond
-inhibits plant growth -HCFCs decompose; but still deplete
& photosynthesis ozone
-stratospheric -HCs: flammable, greenhouse gases
convection currents -HFCs: best alternative, expensive
altered
 Environmental Chemistry
water: d.5 water suitable for drinking; d.6 dissolved oxygen in water; d.7 waste water treatment; d.10 toxic substances in water
Pollutant / Annoying thing Source Health effect Environmental effect Removal method
Salt NaCl seawater undrinkable water -- distillation
reverse osmosis
ion exchange columns
Oxygen sewage / sewage -- BOD > 5 ppm (normally 1 ppm) see Organic waste, Phosphates
demanding detergent / detergents/fertilisers cannot support aquatic life and Nitrates
wastes fertiliser some industries eutrophication (anaerobic decay)
Solids -- domestic sewage -- -- Primary treatment: filtration with
rivers mechanical “screens”; flocculant
Organic waste -- domestic sewage disease causing bacteria high BOD (see above) Secondary treatment: aeration of
water  aerobic bacteria break
down matter (activated sludge
process)
Heavy metal Cd zinc mining effluent toxic: interferes with enzymes fish die Tertiary treatment:
ions rechargeable batteries kidney damage birth defects in mice -precipitation by bubbling H2S
metal plating destroys red blood cells crops (rice) don’t grow into water  insoluble sulfates
orange pigment in paints/enamels Itai-itai disease / brittle bones Cd2+ + H2S  CdS + 2H+
Hg batteries neurotoxin: accumulates in liver kills fish
fungicide in seed dressings & kidneys biological magnification Other heavy metal ions removed
industrial electrolysis forms organomercury effect on animals similar to by addition of Ca(OH)2 or
compounds: affect blood/brain humans Na2CO3
Minamata disease Cr3+ + 3OH-  Cr(OH)3
Pb leaded petrol poisoning: kidney failure/death... toxic to plants / domestic animals
old paints mental retardation in children biological magnification
car batteries hypertension & heart disease
lead water pipes
Phosphates PO43- artificial fertilisers -- eutrophication Tertiary treatment:
detergents (kills species) -precipitation by addition of
Al2(SO4)3 or Ca(OH)2
Al3+ + PO43-  AlPO4
3Ca2+ + 2PO43-  Ca3(PO4)2
Nitrates N2O artificial fertilisers blue baby syndrome eutrophication ion exchange (zeolite) columns
NO intense animal farming (methaemoglobinaemia) (kills species) anaerobic bacteria  N2
NO2 acid rain form nitrosamines (carcinogenic) algal ponds
 Environmental Chemistry
pesticides DDT -- -- -- --
insecti-/
herbi-/
fungicides
dioxins see below -- -- -- --
polychlorinated see below -- -- -- --
biphenyls

example of a dioxin

example of a polychlorinated biphenyl

 Environmental Chemistry

Obj Notes
Assessment statement
E.1.1 Describe the main sources of 2 Include both natural
carbon monoxide (CO), oxides of and anthropogenic
nitrogen (NOx), oxides of sulfur (SOx), sources. Equations
particulates and volatile organic should be used as
compounds (VOCs) in the atmosphere. appropriate.
Examples include:
 CO—catalytic
converters
 NOx—catalytic
converters, control
of fuel/air ratio
 SOx—alkaline
E.1.2 Evaluate current methods for the scrubbing,
reduction of air pollution. limestone-based
fluidized beds
 particulates—
electrostatic
precipitation

VOCs—catalytic
converters.

  Assessment statement
State what is meant by the term acid deposition and
E.2.1
outline its origins.
Discuss the environmental effects of acid deposition
E.2.2
and possible methods to counteract them.
  Assessment statement
E.3.1 Describe the greenhouse effect.
List the main greenhouse gases
E.3.2 and their sources, and discuss
their relative effects.
Discuss the influence of increasing
E.3.3 amounts of greenhouse gases on 3
the atmosphere.
Environmental Chemistry
Obj Notes
Acid deposition refers to the process by which acidic particles, gases and
precipitation leave the atmosphere. Both wet deposition (acid rain, fog and
snow) and dry deposition (acidic gases and particles) will be assessed. Rain is
1 naturally acidic because of dissolved CO2 but acid rain has a pH of less than
5.6. It is caused by oxides of sulfur and oxides of nitrogen. The equations for the
burning of sulfur and nitrogen, and for the formation of H2SO3, H2SO4,
HNO2 and HNO3, will be assessed.
3
Obj Notes
Greenhouse gases allow the passage of incoming solar short-wavelength radiation but absorb the
longer-wavelength radiation from the Earth. Some of the absorbed radiation is re-radiated back to
Earth.
2
TOK: Some people question the reality of climate change and question the motives of scientists
who have “exaggerated” the problem. How do we assess the evidence collected and the models
used to predict the impact of human activities?
The greenhouse gases to be considered are CH4, H2O, CO2, N2O and chlorofluorocarbons
3
(CFCs). Their effects depend on their abundance and their ability to absorb heat radiation.
Examples include: thermal expansion of the oceans, melting of the polar ice-caps, floods, droughts,
changes in precipitation and temperature, changes in the yield and distribution of commercial
crops, and changes in the distribution of pests and disease-carrying organisms.
 Environmental Chemistry

Assessment statement Obj Notes

 
Formation:

Describe the formation and depletion of

E.4.1 ozone in the stratosphere by natural 2
Depletion:
processes.

List the ozone-depleting pollutants and

E.4.2 1 Examples include chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and oxides of nitrogen (NOx).
their sources.
Alternatives include hydrocarbons, fluorocarbons and hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs). Include
Discuss the alternatives to CFCs in
E.4.3 3 toxicity, flammability, the relative weakness of the C–Cl bond and the ability to absorb
terms of their properties.
infrared radiation.

  Assessment statement Obj Notes

E.5.1 Outline biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) as a measure of oxygen-demanding wastes in water. 2
E.5.2 Distinguish between aerobic and anaerobic decomposition of organic material in water. 2 Use redox equations as appropriate.
E.5.3 Describe the process of eutrophication and its effects. 2
E.5.4 Describe the source and effects of thermal pollution in water. 2
 Environmental Chemistry
  Assessment statement Obj Notes
Examples include heavy metals, pesticides, dioxins,
List the primary pollutants found in waste water and identify their polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), organic matter, nitrates and
E.6.1 2
sources. phosphates.
Aim 7: Data banks and spreadsheets can be used.
For primary treatment, filtration and sedimentation should be
covered.
Outline the primary, secondary and tertiary stages of waste water
For secondary treatment, mention the use of oxygen and bacteria
E.6.2 treatment, and state the substance that is removed during each 2
(for example, the activated sludge process).
stage.
Include the removal of heavy metals, phosphates and nitrates by
chemical or biological processes.
Evaluate the process to obtain fresh water from sea water using
E.6.3 3
multi-stage distillation and reverse osmosis.

  Assessment statement Obj Notes

E.7.1 Discuss salinization, nutrient depletion and 3 Salinization: This is the result of continually irrigating soils. Irrigation waters contain
soil pollution as causes of soil degradation. dissolved salts, which are left behind after water evaporates. In poorly drained soils, the

Describe the relevance of the soil organic
matter (SOM) in preventing soil
E.7.2
degradation, and outline its physical and
biological functions.
E.7.3 List common organic soil pollutants and
their sources.
Environmental Chemistry
salts are not washed away and begin to accumulate in the topsoil. Plants cannot grow in
soil that is too salty.
Nutrient depletion: Agriculture disrupts the normal cycling of nutrients through the soil food
web when crops are harvested. This removes all the nutrients and minerals that they
absorbed from the soil while growing. Practices leading to amelioration of nutrient
depletion may further contribute to environmental pollution.
Soil pollution: This is the consequence of the use of chemicals such as pesticides and
fertilizers. These chemicals can disrupt the soil food web, reduce the soil’s biodiversity and
ultimately ruin the soil. The chemicals also run off the soil into surface waters and move
through the soil, polluting groundwater.
The term soil organic matter (SOM) is generally used to represent the organic constituents
in the soil, including undecayed plant and animal tissues, their partial decomposition
products and the soil biomass. It includes:
 identifiable, high-molecular-mass organic materials (for example, polysaccharides
and proteins)
 simpler substances (for example, sugars, amino acids and other small molecules)
 humic substances.
2
The functions of SOM can be broadly classified into two groups.
 Biological: provides source of nutrients (P, N, S) and so contributes to the resilience
of the soil/plant system.
 Physical: improves structural stability, influences water-retention properties and
alters the soil thermal properties.
1 Examples should include petroleum hydrocarbons, agrichemicals, volatile organic
compounds (VOCs), solvents, polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), polychlorinated
biphenyls (PCBs), organotin compounds and semi-volatile organic compounds (SVOCs).
 Environmental Chemistry
Aim 7: Data banks and spreadsheets can be used here.

  Assessment statement Obj Notes

E.8.1 Outline and compare the various methods for waste disposal. 3 Examples include landfills and incineration.
Describe the recycling of metal, glass, plastic and paper products, and outline its
E.8.2 2
benefits.
Include both low-level and high-level radioactive
E.8.3 Describe the characteristics and sources of different types of radioactive waste. 2
waste.
Compare the storage and disposal methods for different types of radioactive 3
E.8.4
waste.