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EE424
EE 424 Communication
Systems
Wireless Communications
• Good Coverage
• Difficult to reuse the same frequencies throughout the system
due to significant interference (No spectrum sharing a lot of
bandwidth is dedicated to a single call)
Limited capacity
• 1947 – 1977
• 1946 FCC allocates 33 FM channels in 33, 150 , 450 MHz bands
• 1960 Direct dialing from automobile in home area
The 3G
• Add broadband data to support video, internet access and other high
speed data services for mobile devices.
Frequency Re-use
• Cells with the same letter use
the
h same set off frequencies
f i
• A cell cluster is outlined in bold
• A cell cluster is replicated over
the coverage area
• Cluster size N = 7 cells
• Frequency reuse factor = 1/7
(each cell contains one
one-seventh
seventh
of the total number of channels
Cell Shape
• Regular shapes:
Square
Equilateral triangle and
Hexagonal
• adjacent circles can not be overlaid upon a map without
leaving gaps or creating overlapping regions.
Cell Shape
Ex. hexagon geometry cell shape
• Designed to serve the weakest mobiles within the footprint
(typically located at the edge)
• The hexagon has the largest area of the three regular shapes.
Geometry of a Hexagon
R
R R
2. High performance
• Little interference
• Large cluster sizes
Frequency Reuse
Nearest co-channel
Example N=19
(i=3, j=2)
To find the nearest co-
channel neighbors of a
particular cell:
• move i cells along any
chain or hexagon.
• then turn 60 degrees
counterclockwise and
move j cells.
Nearest co-channel
Example 3.1
Example 2.1
(a) For N= 4,
total number of channels available per cell 660/4 = 165 channels.
Handoff
• Handover scenarios
Intra-cell handover (e.g., change frequency due to narrowband
interference)
Inter-cell, intra-BSC handover (e.g., movement across cells)
Inter-BSC,
SC iintra-MSC
SC hhandover
d ((e.g., movement across BSC)
SC)
Inter MSC handover (e.g., movement across MSC)
Handoff
• Designers must specify an optimum
signal level at which to initiate a
handoff.
• Margin (Δ) is defined Δ = handoff
threshold - Minimum acceptable signal Improper handoff situation
to maintain the call
• If Δ too small:
Insufficient time
to complete handoff
before call is lost Proper handoff situation
More call losses
• If Δ too large:
Too many handoffs
Burden for MSC
Call Dropped
• Large
a ge delay
de ay by tthee MSC
SC in assigning
ass g g a handoff.
a do .
• Threshold margin (Δ) is set too small for the handoff time in the
system.
Handoff is Necessary?
Dwell Time
• Depends on:
Propagation, interference, distance between
the subscriber and the base station, and other time varying
effects. (the speed of the user and the type of radio coverage)
Styles of Handoff
• Network Controlled Handoff (NCHO)
– in first generation cellular system, each base station constantly
monitors signal strength from mobiles in its cell
– based on the measures, MSC decides if handoff necessary
– mobile plays passive role in process
– burden on MSC
Intersystem Handoff
Prioritizing Handoff
Dropping a call is more annoying than line busy
• Guard channel concept (Decrease the probability of forced termination due to lack of
available channels)
(2) Another practical limitation is the ability to obtain new cell sites. In
practice it is difficult for cellular service providers to obtain new
physical cell site locations in urban areas.
• As the user travels away from the base station at a very slow
speed, the average signal strength does not decay rapidly.
• Even when the user has traveled well beyond the designed
range of the cell, the received signal at the base station may be
above the handoff threshold, thus a handoff may not be made.
Co-channel Interference
Co-channel cells: Cells that use the same set of frequencies
Co-channel Interference
When the size of each cell is the same, and the BSs transmit
the same power, the co-channel interference ratio depends on:
• The radius of the cell (R)
• The distance between centers of the nearest co-channel
cells (D)
Signal-to-Interference Ratio
S S
= i0
I
∑I
i =1
i
(Propagation measurements)
The average received power Pr at a distance d from the
transmitting antenna is approximated by
−n
⎛d ⎞
Pr = Po ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ d0 ⎠
⎛d ⎞
Pr (dBm) = Po (dBm) − 10n log⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ d0 ⎠
Where P0 is the power received at a close-in reference point in
the far field region of the antenna at a small distance d0 from the
transmitting antenna, and n is the path loss exponent.
n ~ 2 to 4 in urban cellular systems.
Co-channel Interference
Assumptions
• The interference is due to co-channel base stations.
• The transmit power of each base station is equal
• The path loss exponent is the same throughout the coverage area,
S/I ffor a mobile
bil can be
b approximated
i t d as
S R −n ( D / R) n ( 3N ) n
= i0
= =
I i0 i0
∑ (D )
i =1
i
−n
All the interfering cells are assumed to be equidistant from the base station
receiver. (Good for large N)
Co-channel Interference
17 dB (for
(f N = 7)
Example 3.2
((a)) n=4
Let N = 7 , then Q = D/R = 3N
(b) n=3
Let N = 7 , then Q = D/R = 3N
Become serious by
• Imperfect receiver filters which allow nearby
frequencies to leak into the passband
(near-far-effect)
Example
The 3 subsets are assigned such that every channel in the cell is
assured of beingg separated
p from everyy other channel byy at least
7 channel spacing.
E h cell
Each ll uses channels
h l in
i the
th subsets,
b t iA + iB + iC,
where i is an integer from 1 to 7.
• The user is blocked (denied access) when all radio channels are
already in use.
Trunking Theory
T ki theory
Trunking th was developed
d l d by b Erlang
E l
• Erlang based his studies of the statistical nature of the arrival and
the length of calls. The measure of traffic intensity bears his name
• Load: Traffic intensity across the entire trunked radio system (Erlangs)
• Request Rate (λ): The average number of call request per unit time (S-1 )
The AMPS is designed for 2% GOS. I.e, 2 out of 100 calls will be
blocked due to channel occupancy during the busiest hour
Erlang B formula
AC
Pr(blocking ) = C C! k = GOS
A
∑
k =0 k!
Erlang B Plot
Number of trunked channels C
Probability of Blockiing
Erlang B Example
• The probability that a delayed call will have to wait longer than t
= e-(C-A)t/H
• Probability of delay larger than t
Pr[delay>t]= Pr[delay>0] e-(C-A)t/H
Erlang C Plot
Number of trunked channels C
Probability of Delay
Some Examples
3.4 How many users can be supported for .5% blocking probability
for the following number of trunked channels in a blocked calls
cleared system? 1,
1 5,10,
5 10 20,
20 100.
100 Assume each user generates
0.1 Erlangs of traffic (Au = 0.1).
C = 1, U = 1 User C = 5, U = 11Users
• System B: C = 57,
57 From Erlang B plot,
plot A ~ 45 Erlangs
U = A/Au = 45/0.1 = 450 users/cell N = 450 users/cell * 98 cells = 44,100
Ex. 3.7
A hexagonal cell within a four-cell system has a radius of 1.387 km. A total
of 60 channels are used within the entire system. If the load per user is
0.029 Erlangs, and λ = 1 call/hour, compute the following for an Erlang C
system that has a 5% probability of a delayed call:
(a) How many users per square kilometer will this system support?
(b) What is the probability that a delayed call will have to wait for more
than 10 s?
(c) What is the probability that a call will be delayed for more than 10
seconds?
56.29%
(c) Probability that a call is delayed more than 10 seconds,
Pr [delay >10] = Pr [delay >0]Pr [delay >t |delay]
= 0.05 x 0.5629 = 2.81%
T h i
Techniques to
t expand
d th
the capacity
it off cellular
ll l systems:
t
1. Cell splitting – cells in areas of high usage can be split into smaller
cells.
Increase capacity by increasing the number of base stations.
3. Microcell zone (distributes the coverage of a cell and extends the cell
boundary to hard -to-reach places.)
Improve capacity by reducing co-channel interference.
Cell splitting
Some properties
– Cell splitting enables more spatial reuse (greater system capacity)
– Cell splitting preserves original frequency reuse plan
– In ppractice,, cells might
g have different coverage
g areas due to practical
p
BS placement issues
– Cell splitting causes increased handoff
• Can use “umbrella” cells where fast-moving mobiles covered by
original cell and slower mobiles covered by microcells
Example
• The base stations are placed at corners of the cells
• The original base station A is surrounded by six new
microcells
p the smaller cells added in such a wayy as to
• In this example
preserve the frequency reuse plan of the system
• Each microcell base station is placed half way between two
larger stations utilizing the same channel
G
F B G
A F B
E C A
G D E C
F B G D
A F B
E C A
D E C
D
G
F B G
A F B
E C A
G D E C
F B G D
A F B
E C A
D E C
D
Example Cont.
• The transmit power of the new cells must be reduced
• The transmit power of the new cells with radius half that of the
g
original cells can be found byy examiningg the received ppower Pr
at the new and old cell boundaries and setting them equal to
each other
• Pr [at old cell boundary] ∝ Pt1R-n
Channel Assignment
• Not all cells are split at the same time
• It is often difficult to find real estate that is perfectly situated
for cell splitting
• Different cell sizes will exist simultaneously
• Special care needs to be taken to keep the distance between co-
channel cells at the required minimum, and hence channel
assignments become more complicated
Handoff:
ff
High speed and low speed traffic should be simultaneously
accommodated (the umbrella cell approach is commonly used).
Antenna downtilting
Antenna downtilting,
Focuses radiated energy from the base station toward
the g
ground ((rather than toward the horizon),
), to limit
the radio coverage of newly formed microcells.
Example 2.8
Each base station uses 60 channels, regardless of cell size
Rorig cell = 1 km & Rmic cell = 0.5 Km
Cell Sectoring
Keeping the cell radius unchanged and decreasing the D/R ratio
Antenna downtilting
Example 2.9
Consider a cellular system:
H = two minutes GOS = less than 1%.
λ = one call per hour Total traffic channels = 395
N = 7 blocked calls are cleared (Erlang B distribution)
120° sectoring,
t i C = 57/3 = 9 channels
h l per antenna
t
Each sector can handle 11.2 Erlangs or 336 calls per hour
Cell capacity of 3 × 336 = 1008 calls per hour (24% decrease)
Thus, sectoring decreases the trunking efficiency while
improving the S/I
Repeaters
Repeaters
Repeaters
Outdoor
Antennas
LNA
BPF
LNA
BPF
Indoor
Antenna
Repeaters
Outdoor
Antennas
LNA
BPF
LNA
BPF
Indoor
Antenna
Fig. 3.3 Repeater bidirectional amplifier using duplexer and automatic
gain control (AGC)