Acute pancreatitis 1

Acute pancreatitis
Acute pancreatitis
(acute pancreatic necrosis)
Classification and external resources

Pancreas

ICD-10 [1]
K 85.

ICD-9 [2]
577.0

DiseasesDB [3]
9539

MedlinePlus [4]
000287

eMedicine [5] [6]

med/1720 radio/521

Acute pancreatitis or acute pancreatic necrosis[7] is a sudden inflammation of the pancreas. Depending on its
severity, it can have severe complications and high mortality despite treatment. While mild cases are often
successfully treated with conservative measures, such as NPO (nil by mouth or NBM) and IV fluid rehydration,
severe cases may require admission to the ICU or even surgery (often requiring more than one intervention) to deal
with complications of the disease process.

Symptoms and signs

The most common symptoms and signs include:
• Severe epigastric pain radiating to the back
• Nausea, vomiting, diarrhea and loss of appetite
• Fever/chills
• Hemodynamic instability, including shock
Signs which are less common, and indicate severe disease, include:
• Grey-Turner's sign (hemorrhagic discoloration of the flanks)
• Cullen's sign (hemorrhagic discoloration of the umbilicus)
Other conditions to consider are:
• Pancreatic pseudocyst
Acute pancreatitis 2

• Pancreatic dysfunction (diabetes mellitus; malabsorption due to exocrine failure)

• Pancreatic cancer
Although these are common symptoms, they are not always present. Simple abdominal pain may be the sole
symptom.

Causes

Most common causes

The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) reported in August 2008 six cases of hemorrhagic or necrotizing
pancreatitis in patients taking Byetta, a diabetes medicine approved in 2005. Two patients died. The FDA previously
reported 30 other cases of pancreatitis. Patients taking Byetta should promptly seek medical care if they experience
unexplained severe abdominal pain with or without nausea and vomiting.[8]
A common mnemonic for the causes of pancreatitis spells "I get smashed", an allusion to heavy drinking (one of the
many causes):
• I - idiopathic. Thought to be hypertensive sphincter or microlithiasis.
• G - gallstone. Gallstones that travel down the common bile duct and which subsequently get stuck in the Ampulla
of Vater can cause obstruction in the outflow of pancreatic juices from the pancreas into the duodenum. The
backflow of these digestive juices causes lysis (dissolving) of pancreatic cells and subsequent pancreatitis.
• E - ethanol (alcohol)
• T - trauma
• S - steroids
• M - mumps (paramyxovirus) and other viruses (Epstein-Barr virus, Cytomegalovirus)
• A - autoimmune disease (Polyarteritis nodosa, Systemic lupus erythematosus)
• S - scorpion sting (e.g. Tityus trinitatis), and also snake bites
• H - hypercalcemia, hyperlipidemia/hypertriglyceridemia and hypothermia
• E - ERCP (Endoscopic Retrograde Cholangio-Pancreatography - a procedure that combines endoscopy and
fluoroscopy)
• D - drugs (SAND - steroids & sulfonamides, azathioprine, NSAIDS, diuretics such as furosemide and thiazides,
& didanosine) and duodenal ulcers
This mnemonic is also roughly arranged according to the frequency of its causes. Thus: Gallstone pancreatitis is
more common than pancreatitis caused by alcohol, trauma, or steroids.

Less common causes

• pancreas divisum
• long common duct
• carcinoma of the head of pancreas, and other cancer
• ascaris blocking pancreatic outflow
• chinese liver fluke
• ischemia from bypass surgery
• fatty necrosis
• pregnancy
• infections other than mumps, including varicella zoster
• repeated marathon running.
• cystic fibrosis
• valproic acid
• Anorexia or bulimia
Acute pancreatitis 3

Causes by demographic
The most common causes of pancreatitis, are as follows :
• Western countries - chronic alcoholism and gallstones accounting for more than 85% of all cases
• Eastern countries - gallstones
• Children - trauma
• Adolescents and young adults - mumps

Pathogenesis
The exocrine pancreas produces a variety of enzymes, such as proteases, lipases, and saccharidases. These enzymes
contribute to food digestion by breaking down food tissues. In acute pancreatitis, the worst offender among these
enzymes may well be the protease trypsinogen which converts to the active trypsin which is most responsible for
auto-digestion of the pancreas which causes the pain and complications of pancreatitis.
Histopathology The acute pancreatitis (acute hemorrhagic pancreatic necrosis) is characterized by acute
inflammation and necrosis of pancreas parenchyma, focal enzymic necrosis of pancreatic fat and vessel necrosis -
hemorrhage. These are produced by intrapancreatic activation of pancreatic enzymes. Lipase activation produces the
necrosis of fat tissue in pancreatic interstitium and peripancreatic spaces. Necrotic fat cells appear as shadows,
contours of cells, lacking the nucleus, pink, finely granular cytoplasm. It is possible to find calcium precipitates
(hematoxylinophilic). Digestion of vascular walls results in thrombosis and hemorrhage. Inflammatory infiltrate is
rich in neutrophils.

Investigations and diagnosis

• Blood Investigations - Full blood count, Renal function tests, Liver Function, serum calcium, serum amylase and
lipase, Arterial blood gas
• Imaging - Chest Xray (for exclusion of perforated viscus), Abdominal Xrays (for detection of "sentinel loop"
dilated duodenum sign, and gallstones which are radioopaque in 10%) and CT abdomen

Amylase and lipase

• Elevated serum amylase and lipase levels, in combination with severe abdominal pain, often trigger the initial
diagnosis of acute pancreatitis.
• Serum lipase rises 4 to 8 hours from the onset of symptoms and normalizes within 7 to 14 days after treatment.
• Serum amylase may be normal (in 10% of cases) for cases of acute or chronic pancreatitis (depleted acinar cell
mass) and hypertriglyceridemia.
• Reasons for false positive elevated serum amylase include salivary gland disease (elevated salivary amylase) and
macroamylasemia.
• If the lipase level is about 2.5 to 3 times that of Amylase, it is an indication of pancreatitis due to Alcohol [9] .
Regarding selection on these tests, two practice guidelines state:
"It is usually not necessary to measure both serum amylase and lipase. Serum lipase may be preferable because
it remains normal in some nonpancreatic conditions that increase serum amylase including macroamylasemia,
parotitis, and some carcinomas. In general, serum lipase is thought to be more sensitive and specific than
serum amylase in the diagnosis of acute pancreatitis" [10]
"Although amylase is widely available and provides acceptable accuracy of diagnosis, where lipase is
available it is preferred for the diagnosis of acute pancreatitis (recommendation grade A)"[11]
Most (PMID 15943725, PMID 11552931, PMID 2580467, PMID 2466075, PMID 9436862), but not all (PMID
11156345, PMID 8945483) individual studies support the superiority of the lipase. In one large study, there were no
Acute pancreatitis 4

patients with pancreatitis who had an elevated amylase with a normal lipase [12] . Another study found that the
amylase could add diagnostic value to the lipase, but only if the results of the two tests were combined with a
discriminant function equation [13] .

Computed tomography
Regarding the need for computed tomography, practice guidelines state:
2006: "Many patients with acute pancreatitis do not require a CT scan at admission or at any time during the
hospitalization. For example, a CT scan is usually not essential in patients with recurrent mild pancreatitis
caused by alcohol. A reasonable indication for a CT scan at admission (but not necessarily a CT with IV
contrast) is to distinguish acute pancreatitis from another serious intra-abdominal condition, such as a
perforated ulcer." [10]
2005: "Patients with persisting organ failure, signs of sepsis, or deterioration in clinical status 6–10 days after
admission will require CT (recommendation grade B)."[11]
CT abdomen should not be performed before the 1st 48 hours of onset of symptoms as early CT (<48 h) may result
in equivocal or normal findings.
CT Findings can be classified into the following categories for easy recall :
• Intrapancreatic - diffuse or segmental enlargement, edema, gas bubbles, pancreatic pseudocysts and
phlegmons/abscesses (which present 4 to 6 wks after initial onset)
• Peripancreatic / extrapancreatic - irregular pancreatic outline, obliterated peripancreatic fat, retroperitoneal edema,
fluid in the lessar sac, fluid in the left anterior pararenal space
• Locoregional - Gerota's fascia sign (thickening of inflamed Gerota's fascia, which becomes visible), pancreatic
ascites, pleural effusion (seen on basal cuts of the pleural cavity), adynamic ileus, etc.

Magnetic resonance imaging

While computed tomography is considered the gold standard in diagnostic imaging for acute pancreatitis,[14]
magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) has become increasingly valuable as a tool for the visualization of the pancreas,
particularly of pancreatic fluid collections and necrotized debris.[15] Additional utility of MRI includes its indication
for imaging of patients with an allergy to CT's contrast material, and an overall greater sensitivity to hemorrhage,
vascular complications, pseudoaneurysms, and venous thrombosis.[16]
Another advantage of MRI is its utilization of magnetic resonance cholangiopancreatography (MRCP) sequences.
MRCP provides useful information regarding the etiology of acute pancreatitis, i.e., the presence of tiny biliary
stones (choledocholithiasis or cholelithiasis) and duct anomalies.[15] Clinical trials indicate that MRCP can be as
effective a diagnostic tool for acute pancreatitis with biliary etiology as endoscopic retrograde
cholangiopancreatography, but with the benefits of being less invasive and causing fewer complications.[17] [18]
Acute pancreatitis 5

Classification by severity

Progression of pathophysiology
Acute pancreatitis can be further divided into mild and severe pancreatitis. Mostly the Atlanta classification (1992) is
used. In severe pancreatitis serious amount of necrosis determine the further clinical outcome. About 20% of the
acute pancreatitis are severe with a mortality of about 20%. This is an important classification as severe pancreatitis
will need intensive care therapy whereas mild pancreatitis can be treated on the common ward.
Necrosis will be followed by a systemic inflammatory response syndrome (SIRS) and will determine the immediate
clinical course. The further clinical course is then determined by bacterial infection. SIRS is the cause of bacterial
(Gram negative) translocation from the patients colon.
There are several ways to help distinguish between these two forms. One is the above mentioned Ranson Score.

Prognostic indices
In predicting the prognosis, there are several scoring indices that have been used as predictors of survival. Two such
scoring systems are the Ranson criteria and APACHE II (Acute Physiology, Age and Chronic Health Evaluation)
indices. Most[19] [20] , but not all [21] studies report that the Apache score may be more accurate. In the negative
study of the Apache II [21] , the Apache II 24 hr score was used rather than the 48 hour score. In addition, all patients
in the study received an ultrasound twice which may have influenced allocation of co-interventions. Regardless, only
the Apache II can be fully calculated upon admission. As the Apache II is more cumbersome to calculate,
presumably patients whose only laboratory abnormality is an elevated lipase or amylase do not need prognostication
with the Apache II; however, this approach is not studied. The Apache II score can be calculated at www.sfar.org
[22]
.
Practice guidelines state:
2006: "The two tests that are most helpful at admission in distinguishing mild from severe acute pancreatitis
are APACHE-II score and serum hematocrit. It is recommended that APACHE-II scores be generated during
the first 3 days of hospitalization and thereafter as needed to help in this distinction. It is also recommended
that serum hematocrit be obtained at admission, 12 h after admission, and 24 h after admission to help gauge
adequacy of fluid resuscitation."[10]
2005: "Immediate assessment should include clinical evaluation, particularly of any cardiovascular,
respiratory, and renal compromise, body mass index, chest x ray, and APACHE II score" [11]

Ranson Score
Ranson criteria is a clinical prediction rule for predicting the severity of acute pancreatitis. It was introduced in
1974.[1]

At admission
• age in years > 55 years
• white blood cell count > 16000 cells/mm3
• blood glucose > 11 mmol/L (> 200 mg/dL)
• serum AST > 250 IU/L
• serum LDH > 350 IU/L
Acute pancreatitis 6

At 48 hours
• Calcium (serum calcium < 2.0 mmol/L (< 8.0 mg/dL)
• Hematocrit fall > 10%
• Oxygen (hypoxemia PO2 < 60 mmHg)
• BUN increased by 1.8 or more mmol/L (5 or more mg/dL) after IV fluid hydration
• Base deficit (negative base excess) > 4 mEq/L
• Sequestration of fluids > 6 L
The criteria for point assignment is that a certain breakpoint be met at anytime during that 48 hour period, so that in
some situations it can be calculated shortly after admission. It is applicable to both gallstone and alcoholic
pancreatitis.
Alternatively, pancreatitis can be diagnosed by meeting any of the following:[2]

APACHE II score
Apache score of ≥ 8 Organ failure Substantial pancreatic necrosis (at least 30% glandular necrosis according to
contrast-enhanced CT)
Interpretation If the score ≥ 3, severe pancreatitis likely. If the score < 3, severe pancreatitis is unlikely Or
Score 0 to 2 : 2% mortality Score 3 to 4 : 15% mortality Score 5 to 6 : 40% mortality Score 7 to 8 : 100% mortality
Mnemonic for memorizing Ranson's criteria At admission: "GA LAW" (glucose, age, LDH, AST, WBC count) At
48 hours: "C Hobbs" (i.e. Calvin and Hobbes): (calcium, hematocrit, O2, BUN, Base deficit, sequestration (of fluid)
greater than 6 L (see: fluid balance)

APACHE
"Acute Physiology And Chronic Health Evaluation" (APACHE II) score > 8 points predicts 11% to 18% mortality
[10]
Online calculator [22]
• Hemorrhagic peritoneal fluid
• Obesity
• Indicators of organ failure
• Hypotension (SBP <90 mmHG) or tachycardia > 130 beat/min
• PO2 <60 mmHg
• Oliguria (<50 mL/h) or increasing BUN and creatinine
• Serum calcium < 1.90 mmol/L (<8.0 mg/dL) or serum albumin <33 g/L (<3.2.g/dL)>

Balthazar scoring
Developed in the early 1990s by Emil J. Balthazar et al.,[23] the Computed Tomography Severity Index (CTSI) is a
grading system used to determine the severity of acute pancreatitis. The numerical CTSI has a maximum of ten
points, and is the sum of the Balthazar grade points and pancreatic necrosis grade points:
Balthazar Grade
Acute pancreatitis 7

Balthazar Grade Appearance on CT CT Grade

Points

Grade A Normal CT 0 points

Grade B Focal or diffuse enlargement of the pancreas 1 point

Grade C Pancreatic gland abnormalities and peripancreatic inflammation 2 points

Grade D Fluid collection in a single location 3 points

Grade E Two or more fluid collections and / or gas bubbles in or adjacent to pancreas 4 points

Necrosis Score

Necrosis Points
Percentage

No necrosis 0 points

0 to 30% necrosis 2 points

30 to 50% necrosis 4 points

Over 50% necrosis 6 points

CTSI's staging of acute pancreatitis severity has been shown by a number of studies to provide more accurate
assessment than APACHE II, Ranson, and C-reactive protein (CRP) level.[24] [25] [26] [27] However, a few studies
indicate that CTSI is not significantly associated with the prognosis of hospitalization in patients with pancreatic
necrosis, nor is it an accurate predictor of AP severity.[28] [29]

Treatment

Pain control
Originally it was thought that analgesia should not be provided by morphine because it may cause spasm of the
sphincter of Oddi and worsen the pain, so the drug of choice was meperidine. However, due to lack of efficacy and
risk of toxicity of meperidine, more recent studies have found morphine the analgesic of choice. Meperidine may
still be used by some practitioners in more minor cases, or where morphine is contraindicated.

Bowel rest
In the management of acute pancreatitis, the treatment is to stop feeding the patient, giving him or her nothing by
mouth, giving intravenous fluids to prevent dehydration, and sufficient pain control. As the pancreas is stimulated to
secrete enzymes by the presence of food in the stomach, having no food pass through the system allows the pancreas
to rest. Approximately 20% of patients have a relapse of pain during acute pancreatitis.[30] Approximately 75% of
relapses occur within 48 hours of oral refeeding.
The incidence of relapse after oral refeeding may be reduced by post-pyloric enteral rather than parenteral feeding
prior to oral refeeding.[30] IMRIE scoring is also useful.

Nutritional support
Recently, there has been a shift in the management paradigm from TPN (total parenteral nutrition) to early,
post-pyloric enteral feeding (in which a feeding tube is endoscopically or radiographically introduced to the third
portion of the duodenum). The advantage of enteral feeding is that it is more physiological, prevents gut mucosal
atrophy, and is free from the side effects of TPN (such as fungemia). The additional advantages of post-pyloric
feeding are the inverse relationship of pancreatic exocrine secretions and distance of nutrient delivery from the
Acute pancreatitis 8

pylorus, as well as reduced risk of aspiration.

Disadvantages of a naso-enteric feeding tube include increased risk of sinusitis (especially if the tube remains in
place greater than two weeks) and a still-present risk of accidentally intubating the bronchus even in intubated
patients (contrary to popular belief, the endotracheal tube cuff alone is not always sufficient to prevent NG tube entry
into the trachea).

Antibiotics
A meta-analysis by the Cochrane Collaboration concluded that antibiotics help with a number needed to treat of 11
patients to reduce mortality [31] . However, the one study in the meta-analysis that used a quinolone, and a
subsequent randomized controlled trial that studied ciprofloxacin were both negative [32] .

Carbapenems
An early randomized controlled trial of imipenem 0.5 gram intravenously every eight hours for two weeks showed a
reduction in from pancreatic sepsis from 30% to 12%.[33]
Another randomized controlled trial with patients who had at least 50% pancreatic necrosis found a benefit from
imipenem compared to pefloxacin with a reduction in infected necrosis from 34% to 20%[34]
A subsequent randomized controlled trial that used meropenem 1 gram intravenously every 8 hours for 7 to 21 days
stated no benefit; however, 28% of patients in the group subsequently required open antibiotic treatment vs. 46% in
the placebo group. In addition, the control group had only 18% incidence of peripancreatic infections and less biliary
pancreatitis that the treatment group (44% versus 24%).[35]

Summary
In summary, the role of antibiotics is controversial. One recent expert opinion (prior to the last negative trial of
meropenem[35] ) suggested the use of imipenem if CT scan showed more than 30% necrosis of the pancreas.[36]

ERCP
Early ERCP (endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography), performed within 24 to 72 hours of presentation, is
known to reduce morbidity and mortality.[37] The indications for early ERCP are as follows :
• Clinical deterioration or lack of improvement after 24 hours
• Detection of common bile duct stones or dilated intrahepatic or extrahepatic ducts on CT abdomen
The disadvantages of ERCP are as follows :
• ERCP precipitates pancreatitis, and can introduce infection to sterile pancreatitis
• The inherent risks of ERCP i.e. bleeding
It is worth noting that ERCP itself can be a cause of pancreatitis.

Surgery
Surgery is indicated for (i) infected pancreatic necrosis and (ii) diagnostic uncertainty and (iii) complications. The
most common cause of death in acute pancreatitis is secondary infection. Infection is diagnosed based on 2 criteria
• Gas bubbles on CT scan (present in 20 to 50% of infected necrosis)
• Positive bacterial culture on FNA (fine needle aspiration, usually CT or US guided) of the pancreas.
Surgical options for infected necrosis include:
• Minimally invasive management - necrosectomy through small incision in skin (left flank) or stomach
• Conventional management - necrosectomy with simple drainage
• Closed management - necrosectomy with closed continuous postoperative lavage
Acute pancreatitis 9

• Open management - necrosectomy with planned staged reoperations at definite intervals (up to 20+ reoperations
in some cases)

Other measures
• Pancreatic enzyme inhibitors are not proven to work.[38]
• The use of octreotide has not been shown to improve outcome.[39]

Complications
Complications can be systemic or locoregional.
• Systemic complications include ARDS, multiple organ dysfunction syndrome, DIC, hypocalcemia (from fat
saponification), hyperglycemia and insulin dependent diabetes mellitus (from pancreatic insulin producing beta
cell damage)
• Locoregional complications include pancreatic pseudocyst and phlegmon / abscess formation, splenic artery
pseudoaneurysms, hemorrhage from erosions into splenic artery and vein, thrombosis of the splenic vein, superior
mesenteric vein and portal veins (in descending order of frequency), duodenal obstruction, common bile duct
obstruction, progression to chronic pancreatitis

Epidemiology
• Annual incidence in the U.S. is 18 per 100,000 population. In a European cross-sectional study, incidence of acute
pancreatits increased from 12.4 to 15.9 per 100,000 annually from 1985 to 1995; however, mortality remained
stable as a result of better outcomes.[40] Another study showed a lower incidence of 9.8 per 100,000 but a similar
worsening trend (increasing from 4.9 in 1963-74) over time.[41]

See also
• Chronic pancreatitis

External links
• VIDEO: Complications of Acute Pancreatitis: Management and Outcomes [42], Mark Malangoni, MD, speaks at
the University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health (2007)
• Medical Information and Treatment of Acute Pancreatitis [43]
• Mechanisms of Disease: Etiology and Pathophysiology of Acute Pancreatitis [44]
• Pathology Atlas [45] image.

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Acute pancreatitis 10

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Acute pancreatitis 11

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Article Sources and Contributors 12

Article Sources and Contributors

Acute pancreatitis  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=360377552  Contributors: 2004-12-29T22:45Z, Acctorp, Afr77, Agentmoose, Andrew73, Aoxiang, Arcadian, Badgettrg,
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Shinawat, Thomasimov, Todfox, Triggtay, Woohookitty, Wouterstomp, Yang Ling Nee, ‫דוד‬55, 138 anonymous edits

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File:Illu pancrease.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Illu_pancrease.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Cradel

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