DA-00-4-2

Control and Optimization Issues

Associated with Algorithm-Controlled
Refrigerant Throttling Devices
Donal P. Finn, Ph.D., C.Eng. Cormac J. Doyle
Member ASHRAE Student Member ASHRAE

ABSTRACT by an electromagnetic actuated pulse valve. In either case,

Control and optimization of refrigerant expansion in
vapor compression systems have traditionally been achieved
by either capillary or thermostatic throttling valves. In recent
years, the emergence of algorithm-controlled throttling valves
or electronic expansion valves has provided an alternative
methodology by which refrigerant expansion can be regulated.
To date, however, the precise nature of the control algorithms
utilized by electronic expansion valves has largely been
proprietary knowledge and thus has not been widely reported
in the literature. In this paper, the development of a custom
algorithm-regulated expansion valve is described. Control
algorithms for refrigerant expansion are implemented via a
building energy management system that is interfaced with a
pulse-actuated throttling valve. Two control strategies are
investigated: a modulated proportional-width algorithm and
a modulated proportional-integral-derivative algorithm.
Performance of the prototype valves is benchmarked against
two reference throttling devices: a conventional thermostatic
expansion valve and a commercial electronic expansion valve.
Experimental testing under conditions of automatic control
and adaptive control are examined. Algorithm tuning issues
are discussed.
INTRODUCTION
The utilization of electronic expansion valves (EEVs) for
the control and optimization of evaporator heat transfer has
provided a promising alternative to traditional capillary and
thermostatic mechanisms (Tassou and Al-Nizari 1993).
Commercially available EEVs typically consist of a micropro-
cessor-controlled throttling valve where refrigerant flow is
regulated by either a stepper-motor actuated needle valve or
optimization of evaporator heat transfer is achieved by micro-
processor-based algorithm control in conjunction with evap-
orator parameter measurement. For proprietary systems, the
precise control strategies utilized in the expansion algorithms
have for commercial reasons not been disclosed. Accordingly,
research studies to date have largely reported on comparative
tests that have benchmarked the performance of proprietary
EEVs against conventional expansion devices such as ther-
mostatic or capillary valves (Mitsui 1987; Tassou and Al-
Nizari 1993; Hewitt et al. 1995). These studies have broadly
indicated that under transient and nonlinear operating condi-
tions, EEVs can offer improved performance characteristics
compared to capillary or thermostatic valves.
In this paper, control and optimization issues associated
with algorithm-controlled refrigerant expansion devices are
examined. This research was originally motivated by the
requirement to develop from first principles custom control
algorithms that could be implemented via a building energy
management (BEM) system, such that direct control of a large
number of vapor compression installations within a single site
could be possible. Accordingly, optimization of evaporator
heat transfer through real-time regulation of refrigerant
expansion was essential. Two pulse-based electromagnetic
throttling devices were developed in this work; a non-modu-
lated device and modulated device. The non-modulated throt-
tling device controls refrigerant flow rate using a simple on-
off cycle that utilizes proportional-only control. The modu-
lated-pulse valve exploits full proportional-integral-deriva-
tive (PID) control, thereby allowing optimization of
evaporator heat transfer to be achieved through real-time algo-
rithm control of refrigerant expansion. Initial research

Donal P. Finn is a lecturer and Cormac J. Doyle is a student in the Department of Mechanical Engineering, University College Dublin, Dublin,
Ireland.

THIS PREPRINT IS FOR DISCUSSION PURPOSES ONLY, FOR INCLUSION IN ASHRAE TRANSACTIONS 2000, V. 106, Pt. 1. Not to be reprinted in whole or in
part without written permission of the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc., 1791 Tullie Circle, NE, Atlanta, GA 30329.
Opinions, findings, conclusions, or recommendations expressed in this paper are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of ASHRAE. Written
questions and comments regarding this paper should be received at ASHRAE no later than February 18, 2000.
compared the performance of the two prototype systems
subject to preset algorithm parameter values. Further investi-
gation focused on the modulated valve and examined evapo-
rator performance subject to automatic and adaptive control.
PREVIOUS WORK
Two streams of relevant work are evident from the liter-
ature. One body of work has examined the performance of
commercial EEV units with conventional throttle valve
systems, most typically thermostatic devices (Mitsui 1987;
Tassou and Al-Nizari 1993; Hewitt et al. 1995). In all cases,
research results indicate that proprietary EEV systems offer
more efficient operation, particularly under nonuniform
conditions, thereby providing significant energy savings over
conventional systems. It is worth noting, however, that none of
these studies examines the issue of algorithm design or evap-
orator heat transfer optimization. Nevertheless, Hewitt et al.
(1995) conclude that improved algorithm design can lead to
better expansion control and improved evaporator heat trans-
fer performance.
More relevant to the current work is research that
concerns itself directly with the development of control algo-
rithms for integration with EEV systems. Outtergarts et al.
(1997) examines the transient response of a glycol evaporator
controlled by means of a stepper motor actuated, needle throt-
tling valve. Two control algorithms are presented: a propor-
tional-derivative algorithm and a qualitative optimal
regulation algorithm. Outtergarts et al. establish optimal
values for the various control parameters and examine vapor
compression system response characteristics subject to step
changes in compressor operating speed. Chia et al. (1997)
examine the control of evaporator superheat in transport
refrigeration systems using an algorithm-controlled EEV that
exploits fuzzy logic. Tests are carried out comparing the fuzzy
controlled system with a commercial system. Results indicate
that the fuzzy logic EEV system provides more robust control
with respect to dynamic loading, particularly during transient
evaporator pull-down. Bartlett et al. (1997) examines steady-
state and transient control using a modified proprietary elec-
tronic expansion valve for an automotive air-conditioning
application. He et al. (1998) present a MIMO (multiple input/
multiple output) feedback control model based on a lumped-
parameter dynamic model. This work is motivated by the
requirement to demonstrate that evaporator heat transfer could
be optimized more satisfactorily by multiple parameter
control compared to single parameter control (such as super-
heat). He et al. (1998) successfully implement a gain-sched-
uling scheme for a wide variety of operating conditions, such
that controller gain can be easily determined at different oper-
ating points.
Concluding, it is evident that published research that has
focused on algorithm development for electronic expansion
valve systems is limited. Furthermore, any commercial devel-
opment of EEV systems has primarily targeted retail and
commercial market refrigeration units. Accordingly, consid-
2 DA-00-4-2
erable potential still exists for the development of algorithm-
controlled throttling valves in domains such as industrial
refrigeration, transport refrigeration, and air-conditioning
systems.
EXPERIMENTAL APPARATUS
The experimental system utilized in this work consists of
a standard commercial cold room with approximate interior
dimensions of 2 m × 3 m × 2.5 m. A direct expansion cross-
flow air evaporator capable of cooling the space to −35°C and
rated at 4.0 kW at −30°C/45°C evaporating/condensing
conditions is employed. The facility, which is fully instru-
mented, has recently been retrofitted from refrigerant R-502
to R-402A. Experimental measurements include compressor
suction and discharge pressures, refrigerant flow rate, evapo-
rator inlet and outlet temperatures, cold room and ambient air
temperatures, as well as compressor electrical consumption.
All experimental measurements are recorded by the building
energy management (BEM) system, which is interfaced with
a personal computer.
Controller Hardware
Of particular relevance to this research is the throttle-
evaporator combination illustrated in Figure 1. This
subsystem facilitates parallel refrigerant flow, thereby allow-
ing comparison of the algorithm-controlled throttling devices
developed in this work against the benchmark throttling
devices. Two custom throttling devices were developed, a PID
(proportional-integral-derivative) modulated pulse unit (EC1)
and a pulse-width modulated unit (EC2). The two benchmark
devices included a thermostatic expansion valve (TEV) and a
proprietary electronic expansion valve (EEV). For operational
details of each of the key components, see Figure 1.
Electro-magnetic throttling valve assembly (SV): The unit
consists of an in-line changeable orifice throttling assembly
with a pulsing armature regulated by means of a 220 DC sole-
noid coil.
Modulated-PID throttling valve (EC1): This unit, illus-
trated in Figure 2, utilizes a proportional burst-fire relay,
switching a solid-state relay in conjunction with the electro-
magnetic throttling valve assembly (SV). A four-second oper-
ational period is employed based on a 200-cycle sequence at
50 Hz. Control is via a 0-10V DC signal produced by the build-
ing energy management system (BEM). Fully modulated PID
operation between 20 and 380 cycles is possible. Outside this
range, the operation is nonlinear.
Pulse-width throttling valve (EC2): This unit exploits
pulse-width modulation action that utilizes a seven-second
period with a minimum actuation time of one second. Propor-
tional control based on single-second increments is utilized.
The controller is coupled with the electromagnetic throttling
valve assembly (SV).
Commercial electronic expansion valve (EEV): An EEV
system from a leading manufacturer based on proportional-
integral regulation (PI) is utilized as a benchmark test. Propor-
 Figure 1 Evaporator and throttling subsystem.
Figure 2 Modulated-PID throttling valve.
tional control regulates valve opening according to superheat.
The integral mode helps eliminate any proportional offset.
The integral mode integrates error over time and adds the
weighted result to the controller output. The controller is inter-
faced with the electromagnetic throttling valve assembly
(SV).
Thermostatic expansion valve (TEV): This is a standard
externally equalized TEV that uses proportional regulation
between superheat and level of valve opening. The valve is
fitted with a slightly larger orifice than the electromagnetic
throttling valve assembly (SV).
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Controller Software and BEM System Integration
The BEM system acts as both a monitoring and controller
facility for the vapor compression system. It consists of a
monitor/controller module (UC16) with 16 analogue inputs/
outputs, a communications module (UCC) that is interfaced
with a PC. For the two prototype controllers (EC1 and EC2),
the control algorithms are implemented via the PC on the
BEM system. For testing on the commercial EEV system, the
BEM system acts as a monitoring facility only.
The prime function of the controller software is to regu-
late against changes in load. Figure 3 illustrates a block
3
 Figure 3 Schematic representation of controller system.
diagram of the controller algorithm. Evaporator superheat is
the sole controlled variable; accordingly, evaporator inlet and
outlet temperatures are measured by the BEM system to calcu-
late evaporator superheat. A superheat set point is established
either manually through the user interface (typically 6°C) or
by the control algorithm by detection of the minimum stable
superheat (MSS). MSS is defined as the superheat value at
which maximum evaporator heat transfer takes place (Huelle
1998). Any further increase in liquid refrigerant supply will
result in a superheat value below the MSS, giving unstable
evaporator behavior without any increase in evaporator heat
transfer. Two-phase refrigerant evaporation is assumed, and
for these studies any pressure drop across the evaporator is
ignored. Two control approaches are utilized, automatic
control and adaptive control.
• Automatic control: The automatic controller utilizes
user-input regulatory parameter values (proportional,
integral, and derivative) that regulate the degree of valve
opening.
• Adaptive control: The adaptive controller consists of
two control loops. An inner loop, which is the system
feedback loop, measures evaporator superheat in real
time and compares it with the superheat setpoint. The
outer loop monitors cold room temperature, adjusts the
regulatory parameters, (proportional, integral, or deriva-
tive values), and controls the degree of valve opening.
Experimental Procedure
Experimental tests were carried out under either tran-
sient or steady-state conditions. Transient tests commence
4 DA-00-4-2
with a uniform pulldown from +30°C cold start temperature.
Transient conditions persist until low pressure compressor
cut-out occurs at a lower set point of −28°C. A restart set
point of −23°C is utilized. Steady-state tests are based on the
introduction of a 4 kW heat load once a one-hour period of
cycling between the upper and lower set points has occurred.
As the evaporator load is rated at 4 kW at −30°C, steady-state
conditions persist under these conditions.
Three different testing programs were carried out as
follows:
• Preliminary Comparative Studies: These studies
focused on comparison of the two prototype valves
(EC1 and EC2) against the thermostatic and EEV
valves.
• Tuning and Automatic Control Studies: These studies
focused on performance of the modulated PID throttling
valve under automatic control.
• Adaptive Control Studies: These studies examined the
performance of the modulated PID throttling valve
under adaptive control conditions.
PRELIMINARY COMPARATIVE STUDIES
Initial studies focused on comparison between the two
prototype valves and the benchmark thermostatic and EEV
valves. For these tests, the modulated PID unit operates with
proportional-only control.
Figure 4a illustrates steady-state performance where the
4 kW electrical load is activated (at minute one) to provide
steady-state operation. A cycle period of 120/400 is utilized
for the modulated pulse unit (EC1), whereas a 3/7 second
Figure 4 Steady-state conditions: (a) cold room temperature and (b) evaporator superheat.
Figure 5 Transient operating conditions: (a) superheat 0-15 minutes, (b) superheat 15-50 minutes.
pulse basis is utilized for the pulse-width unit (EC2). The
difference in cold room air temperatures achieved by EC1 and
EC2 is attributed to the different proportional gain values
associated with each valve. In both prototypes, the effect of
proportional control is evident and significant offsets are
observed. For the PI-regulated proprietary device (EEV),
proportional control achieves a lower setpoint, albeit with
additional on-off cycling of the system.
Figure 4b illustrates the superheat recorded for the
steady-state conditions in Figure 4a. The pulse-width control-
ler (EC2) maintains an operational superheat with a cyclic
margin of ±1°C about its set point. The cyclic behavior is
attributed to dynamic operation of the valve resulting from the
one in seven (1/7) second pulsation period. The possibility of
hunting was considered and rejected as the valve is operating
within a minimum stable superheat (MSS). Smaller fluctua-
tions (±0.2°C) are evident for the modulated pulse unit (EC1).
The thermostatic valve (TEV) exhibits stable control but oper-
ates at a higher superheat level than the prototype valves,
which is attributed to its operation well outside its MSS. The
proprietary valve (EEV) with integral control provides a
smaller superheat with periodic on-off cycling. Integral action
DA-00-4-2
removes offset (superheat steady-state error), which is char-
acteristic of proportional-only control.
Transient tests were carried out under start-up conditions
from a coldroom temperature of +30°C until the lower set
point of −28°C is reached. Figure 5 illustrates evaporator
superheat from start-up to minute 15 and then on a different
scale from minute 15 to minute 55. In these tests, any pres-
sure drop across the evaporator is not accounted for; thus, a
difference exists between the real and apparent (measured)
superheat. This difference manifests itself as a negative
superheat value, which is evident in the initial start-up period
associated with Figure 5. Examination of the superheat in the
region 1-15 minutes reveals a higher value for the electroni-
cally activated valves. This is attributed to the slightly
smaller orifice used in the electromagnetic valve assembly
compared to the thermostatic unit, which leads to a lower
evaporating pressure with a consequent reduction in refriger-
ant mass flow, thereby giving increased superheat. Another
point worth noting is that regulation of the TEV commences
earlier, at approximately 8 minutes, compared to EC1 at 12
minutes, EEV at 14 minutes, and EC2 at 15 minutes.
5
 Considering transient operation between 15 and 50
minutes just before compressor shutdown, the nonmodulated
stepping action of the pulse throttling device (EC2) is evident,
resulting in significant variation of up to ±2.0°C in evaporator
superheat. The performance of controller EC1 is better with
superheat fluctuations on the order of ±0.25°C. Some fluctu-
ation is to be expected as a fixed proportional value is utilized,
whereas the evaporator load is changing dynamically through-
out the test. The TEV is observed to give stable performance;
however, as it is operating beyond the MSS, there is a rela-
tively high superheat. The proprietary electronic device grad-
ually reduces evaporator superheat toward 4°C as a result of
integral action.
The main conclusions that can be drawn from these
preliminary tests are (a) that the pulse-width valve (EC2) gives
poorer performance compared to the modulated unit (EC1),
which is attributed to the nonmodulated nature of its control,
and (b) that a combination of P, I, and D control is necessary
for optimization of evaporator performance, which is only
possible with the modulated PID valve (EC1). Accordingly,
further tests focused on controller tuning and evaporator opti-
mization associated with the modulated valve (EC1) under
conditions of automatic and adaptive control.
TUNING
Tuning of the modulated pulse valve (EC1) is carried out
using open loop response testing of the evaporator. Open loop
tuning is carried out by introducing different step changes in
the valve opening position and noting evaporator response
characteristics. The evaporator is represented using a first
order plus time delay model as follows:
KE e Td s
G ( s ) = -----------------
1 + τs
TABLE 1
Automatic Control: Parameters Determined by the Ziegler-Nichols and Bekker Approaches
Controller
Controller Gain (P)
Type
Evaporator G(s) = (−0.098e-10s) G(s) = (−0.906e-10s) G(s) = (−0.098e-10s) G(s) = (−0.906e-10s) G(s) = (−0.098e-10s) G(s) = (−0.906e-10s)
transfer / (1 + 20s) / (1 + 44s) / (1 + 20s)
function
Ziegler-Nichols
P only 20.4 4.3
PI 18.4 3.9
PID 24.5 5.8
PI 7.5 1.8
6 DA-00-4-2
where
KE = evaporator gain (dimensionless),
Td = evaporator time delay (s),
τ = evaporator time constant (s).
Two evaporator transfer functions were experimentally
determined for high load (HL) just after system start-up and
for low load (LL) just before system shutdown:
High load:
G(s) = (−0.098e-10s) / (1 + 20s)
Low load:
G(s) = (−0.906e-10s) / (1 + 44s)
Using these evaporator transfer functions, it is possible to
determine appropriate proportional, integral, and derivative
constants for the controller under different operating condi-
tions. Two tuning approaches were utilized: the well-known
Ziegler-Nichols method and the Bekker method (Ziegler and
Nichols 1942; Bekker et al. 1991).
The Ziegler-Nichols open loop tuning is based on relating
the process parameters (delay time, process gain, and time
constant) to the controller parameters (controller gain and
integral value).
The Bekker approach focuses on a critically damped
response as it lends itself to root locus analysis. A critically
damped response occurs when the roots of the system’s char-
acteristic equation make the transition from real to complex.
This transition, known as the breakaway point, can be found
from the system’s characteristic equation.
Table 1 gives sample controller parameter values result-
ing for each of the two tuning approaches.
AUTOMATIC CONTROL
Under conditions of automatic control, different values
can be set for the proportional, integral, and derivative param-
eters by means of the BEM system. In this section, evaporator
response characteristics are examined subject to a variety of
algorithm parameter settings. All tests were carried out using
the PID modulated controller (EC1).
Controller Integral (I) Controller Derivative (D)
/ (1 + 44s) / (1 + 20s) / (1 + 44s)
33 33
20 20 5 5
Bekker
20 44
Evaporator Response Characteristics Subject
to Proportional-Only Control
Under conditions of proportional-only control, the evap-
orator response is exclusively dependent on the proportional
band of the controller. As an inverse relation exists between
the controller proportional gain and band, a large proportional
gain results in a small proportional band. This is evident in
Figure 6, where a set point target superheat of 6°C is utilized
under steady-state conditions. For closed-loop control condi-
tions, the controller proportional gain (Kp) is increased from
10 to 22, giving a controlled superheat band between 6-16°C
and 6-10.5°C, respectively. It can be observed that as the
controller proportional gain (Kp) is increased, the controlled
variable (superheat) becomes progressively more oscillatory.
Accordingly, for small proportional bands (high Kp), oscilla-
tion will be evident as the system is over responsive. Alterna-
tively, a wide proportional band (low Kp) leads to drift due to
lack of system responsiveness. For optimum conditions, a
narrow a band as possible should be chosen without causing
oscillation.
Figure 6 Influence of proportional gain on system response.
Figure 7 Transient system response to proportional-only control: (a) Kp = 4.3, (b) Kp = 20.4.
DA-00-4-2
Figure 7 shows the transient system response after
system start-up from ambient conditions. Two optimized
controller proportional gain values are utilized for low (Kp
= 4.3) and high (Kp = 20.4) evaporator load conditions.
After an initial start-up period under open loop control (5
minutes for Kp = 4.3, 15 minutes for Kp = 20.4), pulldown
of cold room temperature progresses until system cutout
occurs (90 minutes for Kp = 4.3, 45 minutes for Kp = 20.4).
Note that for low proportional gain values, the evaporator
response characteristics are stable but slow, with pulldown
taking almost 90 minutes. For high proportional gain
values, however, pulldown is substantially faster (45
minutes) with a smaller superheat present throughout.
However, under high proportional gain regulation, note that
as the evaporator load decreases (after 25 minutes), the
system response is observed to become more oscillatory.
This can be attributed to overresponsiveness of the control-
ler due to the smaller proportional band associated with
high proportional gain values.
7
 Figure 8 illustrates steady-state performance under low
and high proportional gains (Kp = 4.3 and 20.4). Stable oper-
ation is observed under low gain values with a minimal vari-
ation in room temperature and superheat. This is largely due
to the large superheat offset (steady-state error) associated
with low proportional gain, leading to underutilization of the
evaporator but giving increased operational stability. At
higher gain values, oscillation of superheat and valve opening
is evident, ultimately allowing lower coldroom temperatures
to be attained.
Evaporator Response Characteristics Subject
to Proportional-Integral Control
Proportional-Integral control is examined where the
controller is tuned using the Ziegler-Nichols and Bekker
methods. For both methods, transient performance is exam-
ined under cold-start conditions where open loop control is
utilized during the initial start-up stages.
Figure 9 illustrates the system response tuning using the
Ziegler-Nichols criteria for proportional-integral gain values
of 3.9 and 33 and 18.4 and 33, respectively. For low load
conditions, it can be seen that the 6°C superheat set-point is
maintained with zero offset error until system cutout. For high
load conditions, faster cold room pulldown is evident;
however, once lower temperature conditions are reached,
oscillation is evident in the superheat and the valve opening
positions. In both cases, a zero set error in superheat is to be
noted, reflecting integral control.
Figure 10 shows evaporator response tuned using the
Bekker control criteria for critically damped conditions. For
low load conditions, PI values of 1.8 and 44 (respectively) are
utilized, whereas under high load conditions, PI values of 7.5
and 20 are utilized. In both cases, steady-state set point error
has been reduced to zero.
ADAPTIVE CONTROL
Adaptive control provides dynamic regulation against
changes in load. The controller adjusts the control parameters
(PID) to control the valve operation, thereby maintaining the
controlled variable (superheat) at the set point. PID valves are

Figure 8 Steady-state response to proportional-only control: (a) Kp = 4.3, (b) Kp = 20.4.

Figure 9 Transient system response to proportional-integral control (Ziegler-Nichols): (a) Kp = 3.9, I = 33;
(b) Kp = 18.4, I = 33.

8 DA-00-4-2
Figure 10 Transient system response to proportional-integral control (Bekker): (a) Kp = 1.8, I = 44; (b) Kp = 7.5, I = 20.
Figure 11 Adaptive control (PID): (a) transient conditions, (b) steady-state conditions.
determined via an independent loop where cold room temper-
ature acts as an additional control input signal. Stable control
can only be accomplished through either conservative tuning
or by periodic retuning of the control system. Conservative
tuning yields sluggish control, whereas periodic retuning may
not be practicable in many applications. Adaptive control can
exploit these functions and offer several advantages over fixed
PID. The advantages include the elimination of tuning and the
automatic gain adjustment for load conditions.
Figure 11 illustrates PID adaptive control for the modu-
lated throttling valve (EC1) under transient and steady-state
conditions. Under transient conditions, open loop control
persists for an initial 15-minute period. Comparison with
Figures 7 and 9 yields some interesting discussion points. For
adaptive control, it can it be seen that a stable superheat of 6°C
is maintained throughout the transient pull-down period.
Furthermore, zero offset from the superheat set point due to
integral action is also evident. In addition, adaptive control is
observed to give faster pull-down characteristics (45 minutes).
In Figures 7 and 9, non-zero offsets were present, system pull-
down was slower, and valve oscillation was observed to occur.
Additionally, it should be noted that under steady-state condi-
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tions, it was possible to lower the superheat set point to 4°C
and still retain satisfactory performance.
Figure 12 shows transient and steady-state perfor-
mance using PID parameters as defined by the Bekker
tuning approach. Open loop control is observed for an initial
15-minute period with a ensuing stable superheat of 6°C
maintained until system shutdown. System pull-down is
approximately 35 minutes and gives enhanced performance
compared to the Ziegler-Nichols tuning approach. Simi-
larly, under steady-state conditions, a stable superheat of
6°C is maintained.
CONCLUSIONS
The importance of controller tuning has been demon-
strated for algorithm-controlled throttling systems. Optimiza-
tion of evaporator heat transfer by control of superheat has
been found to be a function of evaporator dynamic character-
istics and evaporator load. Proportional gain values influence
both steady and transient response time: low gain values give
rise to an over-damped system with slower transient response
characteristics, whereas high gain valves facilitate faster
9
Figure 12 Adaptive control (Bekker): (a) transient conditions, (b) steady-state conditions.
response times but with increased oscillatory behavior. Inte-
gral action has been observed to reduce superheat offset error.
This paper represents preliminary findings from an ongo-
ing project that aims to investigate the construction and design
of algorithm-controlled throttling devices. The key conclu-
sions that arise from this work to date may be summarized as
follows:
• It is possible to develop from first principles algorithms
capable of controlling refrigerant expansion under
steady and transient evaporator operating conditions.
• It is possible to achieve similar system performance
with custom-controlled throttle valves compared to
existing commercial devices, both thermostatic and
electronic.
• Proper tuning of controller parameters is essential for
optimization of evaporator heat transfer and perfor-
mance.
In conclusion, the authors believe that custom-designed
expansion control algorithms may, for certain refrigeration
installations, offer operational and optimization advantages
over existing commercially available devices.
Future work will focus on the development of a dynamic
throttle-evaporator mode, which will allow different control
strategies to be evaluated and compared with experimental
data.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This research has been supported by the Irish-American
Partnership, Cross Refrigeration Ltd., and Cylon Control
Systems Ltd. In addition, the assistance of the Buildings
Office, University College Dublin, is gratefully acknowl-
edged.
10
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