15497301 A Report

On
SUMMER TRAINING
In
NORTH EASTERN RAILWAY,GORAKHPUR

Submitted By-:

JAGDAMBA SHARMA

(0614731048)

Submitted To-:

MR. ANIL KUMAR

Senior Lect. (Deptt. Of E & C)

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

IFTM, MORADABAD

27 NOVEMBER, 2011
 Certificate

This is to certify that JAGDAMBA SHARMA having Roll no. 0614731048 is a bonafide
student of Electronics & Communication in CET,Moradabad.He has done his summer
training in North Eastern Railway,Gorakhpur.This report entitled “Microwave
Communication & Signalling in Indian Railways” is a bonafide work done by him.I have
seen his original certificate & report.

Date: 27-11-2010.

Mr. Anil Kumar

(Training Incharge)
Senior Lect.
Deptt. Of E & C,
CET.Moradabad.
 NORTH EASTERN RAILWAY

GORAKHPUR

MICROWAVE COMMUNICATION AND SIGNALLING

SUBMITTED BY:-

JAGDAMBA SHARMA

B.TECH.(ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION)

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY,MORADABAD

 Acknowledgement

Behind the completion of any successful work there lies the contribution of
not one but many individuals who may have directly or indirectly contributed to it.

First and foremost I am grateful to the management of NORTH EASTERN

RAILWAY,GORAKHPUR for providing me the opportunity to undertake my
“Summer Industrial Training” in the organization.I specially convey my thanks
to all the staff members for their precious guidance during our training and in
completion of this project.I Feel priviledged to express my deep regards and
gratitude to all the Engineers and staffs of MICROWAVE CENTRE,N.E
RLY,GORAKHPUR and SIGNAL WORKSHOP,N.E RLY,GORAKHPUR.

I am much indent to my friends whose moral support always inspired me to

come out with the best.It’s great pleasure to extend my heartfelt thanks to
everybody who helped me through the successful completion of my training.

The acknowledgement would be incomplete if I fail to express deep sense of

my obligation and reverence to my parents without whom this work would not
have seen the light of the day.

Jagdamba Sharma
 Preface

Engineering students gain theoretical knowledge only through books. Only

theoretical knowledge is not sufficient for absolute mastery in any field.
Theoretical knowledge in our books is not of much use without knowing its
practical implementation. It has been experienced that theoretical knowledge is
volatile in nature; however practical knowledge imparts solid foundation in our
mind.
The practical industrial training is a part of four year degree course.Practical
industrial training mainly aims at making one aware of industrial environment
which means that one gets to know the limitations,constraints and freedom under
which an engineer works.

This report is infact a summary of, what I have learnt and seen during my
training in Railways.It simply summarizes the Microwave communication,
signaling and signal workshop as carried out in Indian railways.The training
mainly involves industrial and complete knowledge about designing,assembling
and manufacturing of equipments.Thus it is very necessary before becoming a
professional engineer.

Jagdamba Sharma
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

 Certificate.
 Introduction To Indian Railways.
 Module 1: Microwave Communication.
 Module 2: Railway Signalling And Signal Workshop.
 Certificate

This is to certify that Jagdamba Sharma, a 4 th year student of Electronics and

Communication branch from College of Engineering and Technology,
Moradabad had completed his summer training with North Eastern Railways
(NER) ,GORAKHPUR in the following modules:-

i) Microwave Communication
ii) Railway Signalling & Signal Workshop.

He has worked under my guidance and supervision in this organization.During this

period he showed keen interest in every field. We wish her success for his future.
I hereby certify his project report and approve it

Principal

Signal And Telecommunication

N.E.Rly,Gorakhpur.
 INDIAN RAILWAYS

 FOUNDED - 16TH APRIL,1853

 HEADQUARTER - New Delhi,India
 AREA SERVED - India
 INDUSTRY - Railway and Locomotives
 SERVICES - Rail Transport
 REVENUE - Rs. 107.66 billion
 EMPLOYEES - 1,406,430

 INDIAN RAILWAYS(BHARTIYA RAIL) abbreviated as IR,is a state

owned railway company of India,which owns and operate most of the
country’s rail transport.It is overseen by Ministry of Railways and
Government of India.
 Indian Railways has one of the largest and busiest rail networks in the
world,transporting over 18 million passengers and more than two million tones of
freight daily.It is the world’s largest commercial or utility employer,with more
than 1.4 million employees.The railways traverse the length and breadth of the
country,covering 6,909 stations over a total route length of more than 63,327 kms
(39,350 miles).As to rolling stock,IR owns over 20,000 freight wagons, 50,000
coaches and 8,000 locomotives.Railways were first introduced to India in 1853.By
1947,the year of India’s independence,there were 42 rail systems.In 1951,the
systems were nationalized as one unit,becoming one of the largest networks in the
world.IR operates both long distance and sub-urban rail systems on a multi-gauge
network of broad,meter and narrow gauges.It also owns locomotives and coach
production facilities.

As the economy of India improved,almost all railway production units

were ‘Indigenized’(produced in India).By 1985,steam locomotives were phased
out in favour of Diesel and Electric locomotive.The entire railway reservation
system was streamlined with computerization between 1987 and 1995.

In 2003,the Indian Railways celebrated 150 years of its existence.Various

zones of the railways celebrated the event by running Heritage trains on routes
similar to the ones on which the first trains on the zones ran.The Ministry of
Railway commemorated the event by launching a special logo celebrating the
completion of 150 years of service.Also launched was a new mascot for the 150 th
year celebrations,named “Bholu,the Guard Elephant”.
  Snapshots:-

 It encompasses 6,909 stations over a total route length of more than

63,028 kilometres of route length and a track length of 111,600 km .
 It is one of the world's largest commercial or utility employers, with more than 1.6
million employees.
 It grossed a revenue of ` 88,355 cr and bagging a net income of ` 951 cr in
the financial year 2009-10 .
 It moves 2 million tons of freight & 20 million people daily across the
county with the help of 200,000 (freight) wagons.
 7,000 passenger trains across the country services 20 million people to
their destinations .
 Vivek Sahai is the current Chairman of Railway Board .

 Organizational Structure-:

Indian Railways is a department owned and controlled by the Government of

India, the Ministry of Railways . IR is administered by the Railway Board, which
has a financial commissioner, five members and a chairman.

 Railway zones:-

IR is divided into zones, which are further sub-divided into divisions. The number
of zones in Indian Railways increased from six to eight in 1951, nine in 1952, and
finally 16 in 2003. Each zonal railway is made up of a certain number of divisions,
each having a divisional headquarters. There are a total of 67 divisions under 16
zones , presently operating in the country .
Each of the 16 zones, is headed by a General Manager (GM) who reports directly
to the Railway Board. The zones are further divided into divisions under the
control of Divisional Railway Managers (DRM). The divisional officers of
engineering, mechanical, electrical, signal and telecommunication, accounts,
personnel, operating, commercial and safety branches report to the respective
Divisional Manager and are in charge of operation and maintenance of assets.
Further down the hierarchy tree are the Station Masters who control individual
stations and the train movement through the track territory under their stations'
administration.

 Practical Training under NER:-

We've received the scheduled Summer Practical Training, as a part of our

curriculum, from June 22, 2010 – July 12, 2010 under Divisional Railway
Manager,NER,Gorakhpur.
.
We've studied about the following operational technologies in the IR -
1. Microwave Communication & Links.
2. Railway Signalling.
3. Signal Workshop(Automatic track changer,Electronic point machines and
relays)
 MODULE I

MICROWAVE COMMUNICATION

Microwaves are electromagnetic waves whose frequencies range from 1 GHz to

1000 GHz. Microwaves are so called since they are defined in terms of their wave
-length.There are large number of bands in microwave region. Microwaves are
used for controlling of trains.It is necessary to give correct running and stopping of
the trains and there should be a single train on a single track.

Microwaves help the railway staff to communicate for this purpose.Stations on

average of 40km can communicate with each other by microwave.there are large
number of bands in microwave region. Before the advent of fiber optics, these
microwaves formed the heart of the long distance telephone transmission system.
➔ In its simplest form the microwave link can be one hop, consisting of one pair of
antennas spaced as little as one or two kilometers apart, or can be a backbone, including
multiple hops, spanning several thousand kilometers.
➔ A single hop is typically 30 to 60 km in relatively flat regions for frequencies in the 2
to 8 GHz bands. When antennas are placed between mountain peaks, a very long hop
length can be achieved. Hop distances in excess of 200 km are in
existence.
➔ The "line-of-sight" nature of microwaves has some very attractive advantages over
cable systems. Line of sight is a term which is only partially correct when describing
microwave paths.
  Microwave Transmitter and Receiver-:

Below figure shows block diagram of microwave link transmitter and receiver
section --
➔ The voice, video, or data channels are combined by a technique known as
multiplexing to produce a BB signal. This signal is frequency modulated to an IF
and then up converted (heterodyned) to the RF for transmission through the
atmosphere.
➔ The reverse process occurs at the receiver. The microwave transmission
frequencies are within the approximate range 2 to 24 GHz.
➔ The frequency bands used for digital microwave radio are recommended by the
CCIR. Each recommendation clearly defines the frequency range, the number of
channels that can be used within that range, the channel spacing the bit rate and
the polarization possibilities.
 Microwave Transmitter and Receiver.

 Application Of Microwave In Indian Railways-:

 Microwaves are used for controlling of trains.

 It is necessary to give correct running and stopping of the trains and there
should be a single train on a single track.
 Microwave communication help the railway staff to communicate for this
purpose.
 Stations on average of 40 km can communicate with each other by
microwave.
 Frequency Range In Microwave Region-:

BANDS FREQUENCY(GHZ)

L 1.1-1.7
LS 1.7-2.6
S 2.6-3.9
C 3.9-8.0
X 8.0-12.5
Ku 12.5-18.0
K 18.0-26.0
Ka 26.0-40.0

 How Terrestrial Microwave Transfer And Receive Data:

 Terrestrial microwaves communication employs earth based transmitters and

receivers to transfer and receive data.
 The frequencies used are in the low giga-hertz range,which limits all
communication to line of sight.
 Examples of terrestrial microwave equipment-Telephone relay towers,which
are placed every few miles to relay telephone signals across country.

 Antennas Are Used To Transfer Data-:

  Microwave transmissions typically use a parabolic antenna that produces a
narrow,highly directional signals.
 A similar antenna at the receiving site is sensitive to signals only within a
narrow focus.
 Because the transmitter and receiver are highly focused,they must be
adjusted carefully so that the transmitted signal is aligned with the receiver.

 Role Of Microwaves In Passenger Reservation System-:

 In PRS,the Gorakhpur Zone is connected to the main server through

communication lines and there is the need of non stop working of PRS in
Indian Railways otherwise there will be big loss to Indian
Railways.
 So to increase the reliability of PRS,the main server is also connected to the
zones through microwave links.In case if there is a failure in the physical
mediathen the PRS can be operated by microwave.

 Microwave Systems-:

There are two types of Microwave Systems.In first schematic processing is in

analog form and in second schematic processing is in digital form.

According to this there are two types of microwave systems as follows-:

 Analog system.
 Digital system.
The analog system is old system and digital system is new one.

 Analog Systems-:

The analog system is simple and this system consists of Transmitter,Receiver and
communication media which is Microwave here.

 Transmitter:

The role of Transmitter is to send the signals and it consists of following parts:-

 Multiplexer(MUX):-
This is used to transmit various signals simultaneously.Here there is
many Input and there is only one output.The output of the multiplexer is
given to the Radio Equipment.
 Radio Equipment:-

It receives the output of the multiplexer and then processes the

signals.This is the most important part of the transmitter and the antenna is
connected to the radio equipment directly.

 Transmitting Antenna:-
This is a metallic object and this is used to transmit the signals in free
space.The antenna transmit the signals at 7 GHz in the space.Here the
antenna consists of a parabolic reflector and a Horn antenna.The antenna is
directional and directive.
 Tower:-
 The tower is a metallic and this is used only to give height to the antenna.

 Receiver:-
The role of receiver is to receive the signals.The receiver consists of
following parts:
 Receiving Antenna:
The receiving antenna receives the incoming signal and then it gives the
signals to the mixer.
 Mixer:
Here in the mixer the frequency mixing takes place and now the output
frequency is different.And the output of the mixer is given to the
Discriminator.
 Discriminator:
The Discriminator seperates the signals and the demodulation process is
done here.This means that the carrier signal is removed and only the
Message signals are taken.
 Demultiplexer:
The demultiplexer has only one input and here the separation process is
done and the sent signals are recovered back.

 Digital Systems:

This system has a large number of advantages over analog system.This

system is a new system and uses digital technology.Digital system is more
reliable and efficient.
Digital system consists of following parts:
 Transmitter-:
The transmitter of digital system is different from analog system.In this
transmitter two types of multiplexers are used which are as follows:
 Primary multiplexer:
This is the first multiplexer at the transmitter side.It multiplexes 30 voice
signals and in the digital system sixteen multiplexers are used of this
type.The output of every primary multiplexer is 2.04 Mbps.
 Higher order multiplexers:
This multiplexer is big and multiplexes the signal coming from the primary
multiplexers.The output of this multiplexer is 34.368 Mbps.

 Radio Equipment:-
The output of the higher order multiplexer is given to the radio
equipment.Radio equipment process these signals and make them able to be
transmitted by antenna.
 Antenna-:
The antenna is same as we are using in analog system.Here also we use horn
antenna and parabolc reflector.Horn antenna is at the focus and it send the
signals to the parabolic reflector surface.After striking from the surface,the
signals are parallel and it is transmitted in such form.
 Tower-:
Here also the role of tower is to give height to antenna.In Microwave station
(Gorakhpur) of Indian railways,there are two towers ,one is for analog and
the other one is for digital communication.
 Receiving Antenna-:
 The receiving antenna is at the receiving side,receives the signals and sends
it to radio equipment.There is line of sight communication of microwave in
between transmitting and receiving antenna.
 Radio Equipment-:
The radio receiver receives the signal coming from the antenna.Here the
signals are processed and then these signals are sent to higher order
demultiplexers.
 Higher Order Demultiplexers-:
In this demultiplexer the signals are separated.And the output of this
multiplexer is given to the low level multiplexer.There is sixteen outputs and
every output has a bit rate of 2.048 Mbps.
 Low level multiplexer-:
This multiplexer receives the output from the higher order multiplexer.It has
one input and thirty outputs.The output frequency rate is 0-4 KHZ.This is
the frequency range of human voice.Here the original voice signals are
obtained.
 Power Reqirement-:
Both systems require power for their operation.A dc current is
required for both systems.This dc current is provided by a set of
batteries.An extra set of battery is also kept for emergency.
 Analog System-:Analog system requires a dc voltage of -24v for its
operation.
 Digital communication-:Digital system requires a voltage of 48 v for its

operation.
  Essential Environment For Analog And Digital Systems-:

There are some requirements for these systems for there proper
functioning.Following are some of the requirements:-

 Air Conditioning.
 Dust Free Environment.
 Uninterrupted Power supply.
 Proper trained staff.

 Use Of Repeaters-:
 After travelling some distance the microvave gets distorted.
 The Repeater is a device which is used to obtain distortion free microwave
and this clean and distortion free microwave is transmitted again in forward
direction.
 Repeaters are used at the average distance of 40 km.

 Fault Control Procedure-:

In a typical Railway Telecom network Scenario,following types of Telecom

Network coexists:
 Transmission-:
1.Microwave/UHF Network.
2.Optical Fibre Cable Network.
 3.RE Telecom Cable Control Network.
4.Railway’s Overhead Wire Control Network.
5.DOT owned Overhead wire control Network.

 Switching-:

1.Electronic Telephone Exchanges.

2.Electromechanical Telephone Exchanges.

 Others-:

1.Single Channel Duplex UHF/VHF Radio Systems.

2.Multiple Access Radio Relay.
3.Pair Gain System.
4.VHF/UHF Simplex Trans-receivers.
5.Talk Back systems for Major yards.
It is indeed very necessary to established well defined Fault Control procedures
for satisfactory maintenance of such diverse Railway Telecommunication
Networks so as to meet the demanding requirements of Indian Railways in 21 st
century.

 Typical Telecom Fault Control Setup-:

Typical telecom fault control setupon railway shall consist of following-:

1. Zonal Telecom Fault Control Setup.

2. Divisional Telecom Fault Control Setup.
The Zonal Telecom Fault Control Setup shall be one for entire zonal railway.
The Divisional Telecom Fault control setup shall be established in each Division of
the zonal railway.

1.Zonal Telecom Fault control setup-:

It shall be manned by Section Engineer(Telecom) in a general shift.Three

section engineers(Telecom) shall be earmarked and should man the zonal fault
control setup round the clock in case of emergencies.Following Telecom Network
shall be monitored by zonal Telecom fault control Room.

 Microwave/UHF Network on the entire zonal Railway-:

The Zonal Telecom Fault Control room shall also function as an emergency
telecom control room in case of emergencies requiring immediate telecom
facilities/restoration.The emergencies may consist of the following-:

 Major rail accidents.

 Cyclones.
 Breaches.

When the Zonal Telecom Fault control room function as the Emergency Telecom
Control room,the divisional Telecom fault control rooms of the affected
Division(s)shall report their positions to the Zonal Telecom Fault control room
which in turn shall advice the Telecom officials at HQs of the latest developments.
The zonal Telecom Fault Control Room shall function under the direct control of
Dy. Chief Signal & Telecom Engineer(Microwave) or any other officer designated
by communication engineer of railway.

2.Divisional Telecom Fault Control Setup-:

The Divisional Telecom Fault Control setup shall have two components:

 For monitoring all telecom networks other than Microwave/UHF called

Divisional Telecom Fault Control Room.
 For monitoring Microwave/UHF networks called Divisional Microwave
Fault Control Room.
Each of these Contol rooms shall be headed by a Senior Section
Engineer(Telecom) in a general shift.Three section engineers (Telecom)/Jr.
Engineer(Telecom)shall man the fault control room round the clock.
Following Telecom Networks shall be monitored by the Divisional Fault
control Room-:

 Optical fibre Cable Network.

 RE Telecom Cable Control Network.
 Railway’s Overhead wire control network.
 DOT owned Overhead Wire Control Network.
 Electronic Telephone Exchanges.
 Electro-mechanical Telephone Exchanges.
 Single channel Duplex UHF/VHF
 MODULE II

Railway Signalling & Signal Workshop

 Introduction-:

Signaling is one of the most important aspects of Railway

communication. In the very early days of the railways there was no fixed signaling
to inform the driver of the state of the line ahead. Trains were driven “on sight”.
But several unpleasant incidents accentuated the need for an efficient signaling
system. Earliest system involved the Time Interval technique. Here time intervals
were imposed between trains mostly around 10 mins. But due to the frequent
breakdown of trains in those days this technique resulted in rear-end collisions.
This gave rise to the fixed signaling system wherein the track was divided into
fixed sections and each section was protected by a fixed signaling. This system is
still being continued although changes have been brought about in the basic
signaling methods. Earlier mechanical signals were used but today block signaling
is through electric instruments.

When trains run on railway tracks they follow rules of operations in

which safety plays a very important role.The most important rule in respect of
safety is to ensure that two trains do not occupy the sameposition on the track at
the same time. To make this rule work operation of trains uses signaling to
controlmovement of trains on tracks and divides tracks into several sections
which are protected by the signals.

Fig shows a representation of a railway signaling arrangement. The horizontal

liner represents the railway track, the signals are depicted by the symbol of the
circle with a horizontal and vertical line to this circle and the red rectangles are the
trains. This representation is however to explain how trains are run safely.

 Locking-:

There are three types of locking

a) Direct
b) Approach
c) Route
Direct locking is available as long as a signal is clear or track is occupied or a point
is set. This is the most fundamental level of locking.
When signal S1 is cleared the cleared condition of the signal locks other signals
which can cause trains to run on any part of the route over which S1 allows a train
to run. Thus with S1 cleared allowing trains to move to track T1 signal S4 cannot
be cleared and willbe locked as the latter also allows trains to occupy track T1.
Other form of direct locking is the locking of the point in the route for which signal
S1 is cleared. If S1 is cleared to the straight route T0 – T1 – T2 then the point P1
will be set and locked to allow a train to move on the straight route over Point
P1.Attempts to move point P1 from this position will not be allowed and hence
will be locked. Conversly if the point P1 is not set for straight the signal S1 will be
locked. The occupation of a track also locks signals if T1 is occupied then signal
S1 cannot be cleared. Signal S1 is therefore directly locked to the cleared status of
the track. Points are directly locked to track circuits over the point zones. If the
track circuit over a point zone is occupied the it is locked so that it cannot move.
This is the direct locking of the point.
  Approach Locking-:

While ensuring safety for train running it is not only necessary to ensure that safety
is ensured over all portions of track for which signals have been given but also
over portions over track which can get occupied due to trains approaching a signal
which protects these portions of track failing to stop at this signal. Such protection
is required under the condition when the signal protecting had not been cleared.

 Flank protection and isolation-:

When a train is allowed to move by a signal it is also necessary to ensure that no

part of the train will be Involved in a side collision.

 Protection in the overlap-:

When a train is approaching a signal a possibility exists that the train may fail to
stop at the signal where it is intended to stop due to mechanical failure or due to
human failure. While there is no absolute arrangement to control against this
eventuality a partial safety is ensured by providing a small part of the track beyond
the signal at which the train is to stop free of any conflict or obstruction to the train
if it fails to stop at the foot of the signal. Typically when train TR1 is approaching
S1 it will normally be ensured that the track section onto T2 is free of any
obstruction. This includes possibility of any train from the opposite direction
reaching T2. Hence if TR1 is allowed to approach S1 it will be ensured that the
train TR2 does not at the same time approach signal S2. Any point in this portion
of the track also needs to be set and locked in the position allowing safe movement
through it. If TR1 is approaching signal S1 it will mean point P2A must be set and
locked for the straight route. The point P2A and track T2 is referred to be in the
overlap for signal S1 and locks the signal allowing approach of a train to signal S1
if not found free. Conversely if signal S1 is cleared any condition which can lead
to the overlap from failing to remain in the condition to maintain safety for train
TR1 approaching S1 will be locked.

 Release of locking-:

Signals indicate when a route which it checks is safe for a train to travel. The
safety is checked from different angles as explained above. After a signal has been
cleared for a train it is required to be put back to danger as the train moves past it.
There are two reasons for doing this-:
a) To ensure the safety of the train which has moved past.
b) To allow clearance of other signals which has been locked by it.
The release of locking is done automatically as a train moves along the route a
signal had cleared for it. The locking is released in stages-:
a) As the train moves past the signal the approach locking is brought back to
normal.
b) As the train clears the first track after the signal the direct locking gets released.
c) As the train moves the route locking , flank or isolation protection for the
portions of the route cleared by the train is removed.
d) After the train has come to a stop at the next signal for sufficient time to prove
that it is not moving the overlap is released. This is the normal release with the
passage of train. There can however be occasions when it is required to cancel a
signal which has been cleared and yet to be passed by the train. When this is
required the signal is canceled. When the signal is canceled it is necessary to
ensure that the locking it had enabled also get canceled. Here again the
cancellation starts from release of the approach locking followed by release of the
route locking, locking of flank and isolation and finally the overlap. The release is
done only after it is established that a train which had been approaching the train
has come to a stopped at the signal before the locking to other signals are released.

 Detection of trains-:

Signals control movement of trains. For it to effectively control movement of

signals there is a need to know the location of trains on the track. The railway
tracks are divided into short sections normally referred to as track sections. At any
time only one train can occupy one such a section. Track circuits or axle counters
are used for the detection of trains in these sections. Only one train can occupy a
track section at any time. Normally the detector is fed with the signal from the
source through the rails and as long the detector receives a signal it concludes that
the track section is not occupied. If a train occupies the track section being
monitored it short circuits the track cutting off the signal from the source to the
detector. When the detector fins loss of signal from the source it concludes that the
section is occupied by a train. Principles of fail safety is also very well
demonstrated in this arrangement. In case of a failure like a broken wire, rail
fracture, power supply failure, failure of the source the detector will lose the signal
and conclude the section is occupied by a train. This will allow the detection to
maintain safety even under failure condition and satisfy requirments of fail safety.

 Control and drive to points-:

Points are driven by electrical motors. The motors are known as point motors and
moves point using a mechanism which including the motor is referred to as point
machine. A point machine mechanism moves switches of a point through a
mechanical arrangement of rods and gears.

 Signals-:
Signals indicate to the train drivers whether the route till the next signals is reached
is safe or not. Before a signal is cleared the signal control logic verifies that
everything is safe for a train which follows it. This will mean-:

a) All track sections over which the train will be routed is unoccupied. This is
checked by checking the status of the track circuit relays. Track proving relays of
all track sections which are clear will be picked up. By checking the status of these
relays which are referred as track relays the signaling control logic can determine
that the route is clear.
b) Routes of any signals which conflict with the signal is not cleared and that none
of the signals have been approach locked.

c) There is not route set over a track section conflicting with the route of the
desired signal. This is proved by checking that all track circuits over which the
signal reads is clear of route locking.

 Implementation of Signaling Systems –

Train running and signaling the drivers of the trains depends to a significant extent
on mechanized equipment. The technologies used for this application ranges from
very rudimentary systems to highly sophisticated equipment. The technologies are
based to a great degree on mechanical arrangement at large number of
installations. Advanced technologies are in use on sections where train densities
are high and
specially where Railway Electrification has already been done. Technologies used
for this application are for two reasons :-
1) To ensure safety of train running.
2) To improve operational efficiency.

 Basic Principles :

Safety of train running in practice means ensuring that two trains do not occupy the
same location at the same time. Since trains are bound onto Railway tracks it
means ensuring two trains do not occupy same location of the track at the same
time. This is ensured in two stages-:

1) By dividing the Railway track into sections.

2) Entry into each of these sections are controlled by suitable signaling system
which ensures through various means that when a train is signaled to Basics of
Railway Signaling.

3) The drivers controlling the train are signaled sufficiently in advance so that they
can stop the train before signals which are not cleared. Since trains typically move
at a speed of around 100 Km./Hr. it requires a braking distance of 1 Km before a
signal at which it is required to stop. Hence signaling system ensures that signals
are conveyed to the Drivers sufficiently in advance to bring the train to stop safely.

4)It should not be possible to move a point when a train is over the point or is very
near to the point having picked up signal allowing the train to move over the point
likely to be moved. In addition to above various other rules are applied to
make a signaling system safe. These rules are results of experiences gained after
accidents. Thus one rule msays that if a passenger train has to run through a line
then this run through line should be isolated from other connected lines in the
station by suitable means. This rule has been introduced to ensure that if there is a
train standing on a connected line and it starts rolling it cannot result in a
devastating collision as it is kept isolated from run through line on which high
speed train has been signaled to go through.

 Basic Rules -:

The basic rules of safety in connection with train running is implemented through
various methods. The Railway Engineering is very old and, therefore,
implementation methods also are old. Availability of modern electrical &
electronic technology is gradually changing the implementation of Railway
signaling systems. The technologies used in Railway signaling system depended
on human element initially. Gradually mechanical systems were introduced
followed by electrical/electromechanical and now
electronics/electrical/electromechanical systems. The human element in Railway
signaling is getting reduced wore & more for improving safety and efficiency of
train operations.

 The Human element :

Signaling Systems exist where setting of the point and locking of the same is
entirely manual. The locking of the point is achieved through key and lock system.
The signals are all hand Signals. A more mechanized arrangement is where
switches turning points are connected to levers and signals are given by
mechanical arms known as semaphore signals. In both the systems the human
element ensure that the routes a train will take is not obstructed. The set person
who is clearing the signals for passage of the trains achieves this entirely visually.
The oldest signaling Systems are entirely manual where even the checking that a
route has been properly is manual.
The 50 Hz & 83&113 Hz signal source is used in a manner similar to D.C. voltage
and requires no special mention as the detector is simply a relay. In case of 83&1/3
Hz system normally 3 phase system is used and two phases are used on any
section. The feed end gives one phase and a second phase is always fed to the
detecting relay. When the track circuited section is free the two phases create a
rotary force as in a AC electric motor. Absence of one of the phase via the rails due
to presence of a train removes the rotating force dropping the relay. The 83&1/3
Hz track circuits is a popular track circuiting arrangement.
 Electronics in Railway Signaling for improved
Safety-:
The audio frequency track circuit is the latest entrant in the field. This arrangement
feeds an Audio frequency signal which causes pick up of Relay via the detector. A
simple Audio frequency generator is used and at the detecting end a L.C. resonant
circuit is used for picking up the desired Audio frequency signal & rejecting
others. Due to the use of high frequency it is possible to use the Railway track as a
transmission line and use of physical insulating pieces electrically isolating one
section as "R' from 'A-B" is not required. By using resonant L.C. circuits at
suitable points the AF signal can be made to stop beyond any particular point
without the need of any insulating joint. This feature is a big advantage for this
type of track circuit as there is no need to cut Rails & insert insulating pieces.
Indian Railways but considerable difficulties, faced on account of loss of track side
equipment due to theft has rendered the system ineffective. As a corollary to this
simple arrangement, systems of continuous automatic control of trains are also
available. Such systems continuously control speed of trains through transfer of
signals from the track side to the engine. The system is quite elaborate consisting
of a receiver located in the engine and suitable transmitter coils located on the
sleepers between the track. A computer computes the required speed of trains
running on the track for ensuring safety as well as for ensuring that trains run on
time speeding as necessary or slowing when needed. Such a system is being
implemented on Metro Railway Calcutta in India for the first time. Such systems
are important for Metro Railway services where time between two successive
trains is are required to be kept very small to as much as one min or less. Even
with such small interval between trains complete safety & punctuality can be
attained using the continuous automatic train control and protection system. Use of
Electrical/Electronic Gadgets for ease of operation Over and above allowing higher
levels of safety by using sophisticated controls the use of electrical/electronic
gadgets for Railway Signaling is also made for ease of train operations and higher
efficiencies. Systems known as Panel Interlocking and its sophisticated variety
known a Route Relay Interlocking are for control of signals and points with higher
efficiencies.

 Design of Signaling Circuits-:

The design of signaling circuits is based on simple principles. Railway Signaling

being one of the oldest control engineering is based on very simple methods
and principles. One of the main reasons of its simplicity lies in the fact that
technological aids for design were not very high till late 21st century and
complicated design principles and methods could not be supported. as a result of
this the circuits are drawn using very simple symbols and names are kept short. If
looked in the context of the fact that the circuits had to be hand drawn in times
where duplicating facilities were very primitive the reason why they are so simple
can easily be understood. Signaling circuits are based on defining relays of the
following types-:

a) Those signifying states in progress of a command

b) Those indicating steady state of the signaling functions.
c) The last operation has been completed properly .All circuits of Railway
Signaling has to ensure safety. Hence both the type of relays defined above also
always ensure safety. This fundamentally means that in absence of any voltage to
the circuit the relays shall assume safe state which is the drop state for all neutral
relays and can be dropped or one of the latched state for relays which are latched
electrically or mechanically.
 Signal Workshop-:

In the signal workshop of Indian railways,following machine are manufactured

which are used as a part of signaling system-:
1. Electric point machine.
2. Relays.

Points are provided to divert the running trains from one track to another. The
points have movable switches which can be operated electrically by a point
machine. A point can be single-ended point or double-ended point depending on
whether the movable switches are provided at one end or two ends of the point,
The two switch rails of the point are rigidly connected together by a cross bar so
that they can be moved from one position to the other position together by the
point machine. If the position of the switches is such that the train is moved on to
the main line as shown above, then the point is said to be in its normal (N)
position. If the switch rails are moved to the other position as shown below so that
the train is diverted to the loop line, then the point is said to be in its REVERSE
(R) position.

 Solid State Interlocking-:

Solid State Interlocking is a data-driven signal control system designed for use
throughout the British railway system. SSI is a replacement for electromechanical
interlockings---which are based on highly reliable relay technology---and has been
designed with a view to modularity, improved flexibility in serving the needs of a
diversity of rail traffic, and greater economy. The hugely complex relay circuitry
found in many modern signalling installations is expensive to install, difficult to
modify, and requires extensive housing---but the same functionality can be
achieved with a relatively small number of interconnected solid state elements as
long as they are individually sufficiently reliable. SSI has been designed to be
compatible with current signalling practice and principles of interlocking design,
and to maintain the operator's perception of the behavior and appe arance of the
control system.

A schematic view of SSI processor.

 Conclusion

This report takes a pedagogical stance in demonstrating how results from

theoretical electronics may be applied to yield significant insight into the behavior
of the devices .Electronics & communication engineering practice seeks to put in
place, and that this is immediately attainable with the present state of the art. The
focus for this detailed study is provided by the type of solid state signaling and
various communication systems currently being deployed throughout mainline
railways. Safety and system reliability concerns dominate in this domain. With
such motivation, two issues are tackled: the special problem of software quality
assurance in these data-driven control systems, and the broader problem of design
dependability. In the former case, the analysis is directed towards proving safety
properties of the geographic data which encode the control logic for the railway
interlocking; the latter examines the fidelity of the communication protocols upon
which the distributed control system depends.

We have covered in this report the history ,latest developments in Railway systems
as well as related fields. We have studied the various uses of electronics and
communications in railways like microwave communication,signaling,electronic
point machines etc..