INTRODUCTION TO X-RAYS AND GAMMA RAYS

After reading this section you will be able to do the following:

• Discuss why X-rays are important and how we use them.

When we go to the dentist to

get our teeth cleaned, the
dentist may want to take a picture of them
to see if we have any cavities. This is not
really a picture, but rather something called a radiograph, or an
X-ray. Your dentist is actually using a small amount of radiation to create a
radiograph which is an image of your teeth. The radiation that a dentist or doctor
uses is often called X-rays. X-rays are a form of electromagnetic energy just light-
rays and micro-waves are. X-rays have more energy than light-rays so they can
penetrate and travel through materials that light-rays cannot.

Film is sensitive to x-rays in the same way that it is to light-rays, so X-rays can be
used produce images. X-rays that are sent through an object can produce an image
on a piece of film placed on the opposite side of the object. By examining the image
or radiograph, the dentist can examine teeth for things such as cavities, which are
not always readily seen. Cavities can be very small defects in your teeth. They are
often too small to be seen by simply examining your teeth with the naked eye.

X-rays also aid in the treatment of medical patients who

have cancer. They can kill the bad cells so that they
cannot continue to divide and spread. X-rays can also be
used to kill bacteria that causes food to spoil. This is
what was used to preserve the food that the astronauts
ate while on the moon and in space.
 Did you know that X-rays are also used to produce
radiographs of materials and objects to locate internal
cracks and other defects? Many important parts are
radiographed before they are put into our cars, and
welders often radiograph their welds to make sure they
have done a good job.

Film is not always used. Specialized pieces of equipment have been developed that
are sensitive to X-rays and produce a image that can be viewed on a video monitor.
You may have seen one of these instruments in use at the airport X-raying
passengers' baggage to ensure that harmful objects are not taken on to the
aircraft.
Radiation has all sorts of uses that are very important to all of us. Continue on to
learn more about X-rays.

Review:
1. Dentists, doctors, NDE inspectors, and airport personal are just
some examples of people who use X-rays in their jobs.
2. X-rays can be used to "look inside" an object and to locate defects
in materials.
RADIOGRAPHS AND PHOTOGRAPHS
After reading this section you will be able to do the following:
• Compare and contrast the differences between radiographs and
photographs.
Below are a series of photographs and a radiograph of the same objects.
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There are several characteristics of the photographs and x-ray photographs that
are similar, and yet, there are very distinct differences. Radiography and
photography both often use some type of film to record the image. The principle
difference is in how the image is recorded on the film.
In photography, the image on the film is produced due to the reflection of light.
When you want to take a picture, you use a camera, which has a shutter that opens
and closes allowing light to enter and strike the film. The amount of light that
interacts with the film determines how the image appears on the film .
In radiography, the process to produce an image is quite different. The camera is
actually a radiation source and it operates quite differently than a photographic
camera. The film is not placed inside the camera but instead is placed on the
opposite side of the object being imaged. The radiation is not reflected to the
film, but rather passes through the object and then strikes the film. The image on
the film is dependent upon how much of the radiation makes it through the object
and to the film. Some materials like bone and metal stop more of the radiation
from passing through than do materials like flesh and plastic. The amount of
material that the X-rays must travel through also affects how many X-rays reach
the film. Differences in the type of material and the amount of material that the
X-rays must penetrate are responsible for the details in the image.

Review:
1. In photography, reflected light rays from the object expose the
film to produce an image.
2. In radiography, X-rays that pass through the object expose the
film to produce an image.
3. Differences in the types and amounts of the materials that the X-
rays must travel through are responsible for the details of the
radiographic image.
THE DISCOVERY OF RADIOACTIVITY
After reading this section, you will be able to do the following:
• Explain radioactive elements and fluorescent minerals.
• Predict what role radioactive elements and fluorescent minerals play
in the discovery of radioactivity.
How was radioactivity discovered?
The discovery of radioactivity, in general, actually came about on a few different
fronts. First was the discovery of x-ray radiation that was artificially generated in
a laboratory, followed by the discovery of several elements that naturally emit
radiation when the nucleus of the atoms disintegrate or decay. These are the
elements that today are called radioactive elements and are said to have unstable
nuclei.
Just before the turn of the century, in the mid to late 1890's, several scientists
were working with cathode ray tubes investigating properties of fluorescent
minerals. Fluorescent minerals are certain minerals that glow when exposed to
sunlight. At the same time, other scientists were busy gathering evidence on the
theory that the atom could be divided into even smaller subatomic particles. Some
of this new evidence showed that certain types of atoms disintegrate by
themselves.
In the following three sub-units you will learn about the discovery of X-ray, the
discovery of radioactive elements, and you will find out who the Curies were and
what contribution to science they made.

Review
1. When the nucleus of an element decays or disintegrates radiation is
emitted, and this kind of element is called a radioactive element.
2. Minerals that glow when sunlight is exposed on them are called
fluorescent minerals.
THE DISCOVERY OF X-RAYS
After reading this section you will be able to do the following:
• Summarize how Roentgen discovered the X-ray.
• Discuss the impact Roentgen's discovery had on the world at that
time (1895), and then compare it to the impact it still has today.
First, the discovery of X-rays

In late 1895, a German physicist, W. C. Roentgen was

working with a cathode ray tube in his laboratory. He was
working with tubes similar to our fluorescent light bulbs.
He evacuated the tube of all air, filled it with a special
gas, and passed a high electric voltage through it. When
he did this, the tube would produce a fluorescent glow.
Roentgen shielded the tube with heavy black paper, and
found that a green colored fluorescent light could be seen
coming from a screen setting a few feet away from the
tube. He realized that he had produced a previously unknown "invisible light," or
ray, that was being emitted from the tube; a ray that was capable of passing
through the heavy paper covering the tube. Through additional experiments, he
also found that the new ray would pass through most substances casting shadows
of solid objects on pieces of film. He named the new ray X-ray, because in
mathematics "X" is used to indicated the unknown quantity.
In his discovery Roentgen found that the X-ray would pass through the tissue of
humans leaving the bones and metals visible. One of Roentgen’s first experiments
late in 1895 was a film of his wife Bertha's hand with a ring on her finger (shown
below on right). The news of Roentgen’s discovery spread quickly throughout the
world. Scientists everywhere could duplicate his experiment because the cathode
tube was very well known during this period. In early 1896, X-rays were being
utilized clinically in the United States for such things as bone fractures and gun
shot wounds.
Take a look at these early x-rays.

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Review:
1. X-rays were discovered by William Roentgen while experimenting
with a cathode radiation .
THE DISCOVERY OF RADIOACTIVE ELEMENTS
After reading this section you will be able to do the following:
• Discuss why Becquerel earned the recognition of being awarded the
1903 Nobel Prize for physics.
• Explain what Becquerel found out about the element uranium.
Next, the discovery of radioactive elements
 Subsequent to Roentgen's discovery of x-rays, in 1896 a French
scientist Henri Becquerel was experimenting with a uranium
compound. While investigating the properties of fluorescent
minerals, it was Becquerel who discovered that certain types of
atoms disintegrate by themselves. When working on the
principles of fluorescence, he utilized photographic film to
record fluorescence of various minerals when exposed to
sunlight.
One of the minerals Becquerel worked with was a uranium compound. The
experiment normally consisted of wrapping some photographic film in light proof
paper, placing a piece of fluorescent uranium on top of the film, and leaving them in
the sun. One day, after preparing the experiment, it was too cloudy to expose his
samples to direct sunlight, so he stored the uranium compound and the film in a
drawer. A couple of days later, he decided to develop this film anyway, and
discovered an image of the uranium sample on the film. Becquerel questioned what
would have caused this. He knew he had wrapped the film tightly in light proof
paper, so the image was not due to stray light.
In addition, he noticed that only the film that was in the drawer with the uranium
compound had an image on it. Becquerel concluded that the uranium compound gave
off something invisible that could penetrate heavy paper and affect photographic
film. Becquerel continued to test many samples of compounds and determined that
the source of the invisible something was the element uranium. This invisible
something was named radiation, and it was determined that an element that gives
off radiation is a radioactive element. Today, we know uranium as one of the
radioactive elements. For his discovery of radioactivity, Becquerel was awarded
the 1903 Nobel Prize for physics.

Review:
1. Henri Becquerel discovered the radioactive properties of uranium
when he stored a piece with some film and notched an image on the
film.
2. Uranium was named a radioactive element because if gives off
something that is invisible to the human eye called radiation.
THE CURIES
After reading this section you will be able to do the following:
• Discuss why Marie Curie was deserving of two Nobel prizes.
• Describe what the Curies discovered.
Who are the Curies?
Other scientists hard at work discovering radioactive elements
were Polish scientist Marie Curie and her husband Pierre Curie, a
French scientist. While working in France at the time of
Becquerel’s discovery, they became very interested in his work.
They too suspected that a uranium ore, known as pitchblende,
contained other radioactive elements. The Curies started looking
for these other elements, and in 1898 they discovered another
radioactive element in pitchblende. They named it `polonium’ in
honor of Marie Curie’s native homeland. Later that same year,
the Curie’s discovered another radioactive element which they named radium. Both
polonium and radium were more radioactive than uranium.
For their work on radioactivity, the Curies were awarded the 1903 Nobel Prize in
physics. In 1910, Marie Curie was awarded the Nobel Prize in chemistry for her
discoveries of radium and polonium, thus becoming the first person to receive two
Nobel Prizes. Since these discoveries, many other radioactive elements have been
discovered or produced. Today many artificial radioactive materials are produced
and put to use in various ways ranging from medical to industrial. We will continue
to talk about these in the following pages.
Review:
1. Marie and Pierre Curie advanced the study of radiation and
discovered the radioactive materials radium and polonium.
ATOMS AND ELEMENTS
After reading this section you will be able to do the following:
• Define an atom.
• Define a Basic Element.
All matter, such as solids, liquids and gases, is composed of atoms. Any material
that is composed of only one type of atom is called a chemical element, a basic
element, or just an element. An atom is the smallest particle of any element that
still retains the characteristics of that element. An element is made of many atoms
and all atoms in one element are the same. The atoms of different elements are
different from each other. The graphic below illustrates this point by showing the
atoms of two elements in the containers of oxygen and hydrogen.

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The atoms in oxygen are identical to each other. The atoms in hydrogen are
identical to each other. However, the atoms of oxygen are different from the
atoms of hydrogen.
Compounds, like water, are formed by combining the atoms of different elements
together according to some chemical formula.
Review:
1. An atom is the smallest particle of an element that remain identical
to all other particles.
2. The atoms
of one
Compounds are
made when atoms
After reading
• Explain how
chemical
• Identify
What are chemical
In order to make it
easier to describe elements and molecules, chemical formulas are used. For
example, H represents one atom of hydrogen and "O" represents one atom of
oxygen. If we want to represent two atoms of hydrogen, instead of writing H H, we
write H2. The subscript "2" means that two atoms of the element hydrogen have
atom is being represented. The graphic below illustrates the formula for water
using symbols.

Some more common molecules and their chemical formula.

Carbon Dioxide > CO 2

Ammonia > NH 3

Sugar > C H O
6 12 6

Rubbing Alcohol > C H OH3 7

Review:
1. Chemical formulas are used to describe the types of atoms and
their numbers in an element or compound.
2. The atoms of each element are represented by one or two different
letters.
3. When more than one atom of a specific element is found in a
molecule, a subscript is used to indicate this in the chemical
SUBATOMIC PARTICLES
After reading this section you will be able to do the following:
• List the three main subatomic particles of an atom.
• Discuss the positions of these particles within the atom and what
electric charge they carry, if any.
What are atoms made of?
Now that we have talked about how atoms are combined to make other substances,
let's talk about the particles that make up the atom. Particles that are smaller
than the atom are called subatomic particles. The three main subatomic particles
that form an atom are protons, neutrons, and electrons. The center of the atom is
called the nucleus. First, let's learn a bit about protons and neutrons, and then we
will talk about electrons a little later.
Protons and Neutrons
Protons and neutrons make up the nucleus of an atom. All protons are identical to
each other, and all neutrons are identical to each other. Protons have a positive
electrical charge, so they are often represented with the mark of a "+" sign.
Neutrons have no electrical charge and are said to help hold the protons together
(protons are positively charged particles and should repel each other).
If all protons are identical and all neutrons are identical, then what makes the
atoms of two different elements different from each other? For example, what
makes a hydrogen atom different from a helium atom? The number of protons and
neutrons in the nucleus give the atoms their specific characteristics. In the
graphic below you will notice that each of the three elements have different
numbers of protons and neutrons. They would also like to have the same number of
electrons as they have protons in order to stay electrically balanced.

Review:
1. Subatomic
particles
are
particles
that are
smaller
than the
atom.
2. Protons, neutrons, and electrons are the three main subatomic
particles found in an atom.
3. Protons have a positive (+) charge. An easy way to remember this is
to remember that both proton and positive start with the letter "P."
4. Neutrons have no electrical charge. An easy way to remember this is
to remember that both neutron and no electrical charge start with
the letter "N."
ISOTOPES
After reading this section you will be able to do the following:
 • Define an isotope and explain how it is different than an element.
The other particle in the nucleus of an atom is the neutron. The neutron has no
electrical charge and is said to be neutral. Like protons, all neutrons are identical.
Do all atoms of an element have the same number of neutrons?
The answer to this question is no. The number of protons in the nucleus of every
atom of an element is always the same, but this is not the case with the number of
neutrons. Atoms of the same element can have a different number of neutrons.
Atoms want to have the same number of neutrons and protons but the number of
neutrons can change.

Notice that the three hydrogen atoms have the same number of protons, but a
different number of neutrons. This is also true for the two carbon atoms. These
atoms are called isotopes, which are atoms of the same element that have a
different number of neutrons.
Review:
1. Neutrons are all identical to each other, just as protons are.
2. Atoms of a particular element must have the same number of
protons but can have different numbers of neutrons.
3. When an atom does not have the same number of protons and
neutrons, it is called an isotope.
ATOMIC NUMBER AND MASS NUMBERS
After reading this section you will be able to do the following:
• Define and determine the atomic number of an atom.
• Define and determine the mass number of an atom.
What is an atom's atomic number?
The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom determines an element's atomic
number. In other words, each element has a unique number that identifies how
many protons are in one atom of that element. For example, all hydrogen atoms, and
only hydrogen atoms, contain one proton and have an atomic number of 1. All carbon
atoms, and only carbon atoms, contain six protons and have an atomic number of 6.
Oxygen atoms contain 8 protons and have an atomic number of 8. The atomic
number of an element never changes, meaning that the number of protons in the
nucleus of every atom in an element is always the same.
Review:
1. An

element's or isotope's atomic number tells how many protons are in

its atoms.
2. An element's or isotope's mass number tells how many protons and
neutrons in its atoms.

ELECTRONS
After reading this section you will be able to do the following:
• Describe the behavior of electrons in an atom.
• Explain how electrons allow atoms to gain or lose energy.
So far, we have talked mainly about what is inside the nucleus
of an atom. Protons and neutrons are found in the nucleus.
Circling around outside the nucleus are tiny little particles
called electrons. Electrons have a negative charge. Electrons
spin as they circle the nucleus billions of times every second.
They are moving so fast and the path that they travel is not the
same each time, so that if we could see these electrons, they
might appear to look like a cloud around the nucleus.
According to current theory, electrons are arranged in energy levels around the
nucleus. When electrons gain or lose energy, they jump between energy levels as
they are rotating around the nucleus. For example, as electrons gain energy, they
might move from the second to the third level. Then, as they lose energy, they
might move back to the second level or even to the first energy level. Only a
certain number of electrons can be in an energy level at the same time.
 The photon shown in the graphic can be considered a small bundle of energy
(For more information on atoms, you may want to review the materials on
magnetism.)
Review:
1. Electrons spin and rotate around the outside of the nucleus.
2. As the electrons circle the nucleus they travel at certain energy
levels but can "jump" between different energy levels if they gain
or lose energy.
STABLE AND UNSTABLE ATOMS
After reading this section you will be able to do the following:
• Define the terms "strong force" and "binding energy."
• Explain what is meant by a stable atom and and an unstable atom.
How do atomic particles interact?
There are forces within the atom that account for the behavior of the protons,
neutrons, and electrons. Without these forces, an atom could not stay together.
Recall that protons have a positive charge, electrons a negative charge, and
neutrons are neutral. According to the laws of physics, like charges repel each
other and unlike charges attract each other.
So what makes the protons stay together in an atom?
A force called the strong force opposes and overcomes the force of repulsion
between the protons and holds the nucleus together. The energy associated with
the strong force is called the binding energy. The electrons are kept in orbit
around the nucleus because there is an electromagnetic field of attraction between
the positive charge of the protons and the negative charge of the electrons.

Does the nucleus of an atom ever lose particles?

In some atoms, the binding energy is great enough to hold the nucleus together.
The nucleus of this kind of atom is said to be stable. In some atoms the binding
energy is not strong enough to hold the nucleus together, and the nuclei of these
atoms are said to be unstable. Unstable atoms will lose neutrons and protons as
they attempt to become stable.
Review:
 1. Electromagnetic fields cause like charges to repel each other and
unlike charges to attract each other.
2. The protons stay together in the nucleus because the strong force
opposes and overcomes the forces of repulsion from the
electromagnetic field.
3. Binding energy is the energy that is associated with the strong
force, and this energy holds the nucleus together.
4. A stable atom is an atom that has enough binding energy to hold the
nucleus together permanently.
5. An unstable atom does not have enough binding energy to hold the
nucleus together permanently and is called a radioactive atom
RADIOACTIVITY AND RADIOISOTOPES
After reading this section you will be able to do the following:
• Define radioactivity and explain how it is produced.
• Explain how a radioisotope differs from an isotope.
What is radioactivity?
Atoms with unstable nuclei are constantly changing as a result of the imbalance of
energy within the nucleus. When the nucleus loses a neutron, it gives off energy
and is said to be radioactive. Radioactivity is the release of energy and matter
that results from changes in the nucleus of an atom.
What is a radioisotope?
On an earlier page covering isotopes is was learned that isotopes are atoms of the
same element that have a different number of neutrons. In other words, the atoms
have the same number of protons but a different number of neutrons in the
nucleus. Because the like charges of the protons repel each other,there are always
forces trying to push the atom nucleus apart. The nucleus is held together by
something called the binding energy.
In most cases, elements like to have an equal number of protons and neutrons
because this makes them the most stable. Stable atoms have a binding energy that
is strong enough to hold the protons and neutrons together. Even if an atom has an
additional neutron or two it may remain stable. However, an additional neutron or
two may upset the binding energy and cause the atom to become unstable. In an
unstable atom, the nucleus changes by giving off a neutron to get back to a
balanced state. As the unstable nucleus changes, it gives off radiation and is said
to be radioactive. Radioactive isotopes are often called radioisotopes.
All elements with atomic numbers greater than 83 are
radioisotopes meaning that these elements have
unstable nuclei and are radioactive. Elements with
atomic numbers of 83 and less, have isotopes (stable
nucleus) and most have at least one radioisotope
(unstable nucleus). As a radioisotope tries to stabilize, it
may transform into a new element in a process called transmutation. We will talk
about transmutation in more detail a little later.
Review:
1. Radioactivity is the release of energy and matter due to a change in
the nucleus of an atom.
2. Radioisotopes are isotopes that are unstable and release radiation.
All isotopes are not radioisotopes.
3. Transmutation occurs when a radioactive element attempts to
become stabilized and transforms into a new element.
RADIOACTIVE DECAY
After reading this section you will be able to do the following:
• Describe radioactive decay and transmutation.
• Discuss the two forms of radiation that can be released due to
radioactive decay.
What is radioactive decay?
Radioactive decay is the spontaneous breakdown of an atomic nucleus resulting in
the release of energy and matter from the nucleus. Remember that a radioisotope
has unstable nuclei that does not have enough binding energy to hold the nucleus
together. Radioisotopes would like to be stable isotopes so they are constantly
changing to try and stabilize. In the process, they will release energy and matter
from their nucleus and often transform into a new element. This process, called
transmutation, is the change of one element into another as a result of changes
within the nucleus. The radioactive decay and transmutation process will continue
until a new element is formed that has a stable nucleus and is not radioactive.
Transmutation can occur naturally or by artificial means.

• Take this link to learn about the two forms of nuclear radiation:
○ Two Principle Forms of Nuclear Radiation

Review:
1. As an unstable atom tries to reach a stable form, energy and matter
are released from the nucleus. This spontaneous change in the
nucleus is called radioactive decay.
2. When there is a change in the nucleus and one element changes into
another, it is called transmutation.
NUCLEAR REACTIONS
After reading this section you will be able to do the following:
• Describe an atom using its chemical notation.
• Begin to understand nuclear reaction equations.
What is the difference between chemical reactions and nuclear reactions?
Nuclear reactions can be described mathematically in much the same way as
chemical reactions. We commonly express these reactions by equations, although
there is a unique difference in the nature of the reactions. The principle
difference between them lies in how the reaction occurs, specifically how the atom
is affected. Chemical reactions involve an atom’s electrons while nuclear reactions
involve the atom’s nucleus.
Writing a nuclear reaction equation
In order to write an equation for a nuclear reaction, we must first establish some
basic rules. Each of the elements involved in the reaction is identified by the
chemical symbol. Two numbers are attached to the symbol. The number at the
upper right is the mass number, also known as the ‘A’ number. The 'A' number
describes the atomic weight of the atom and identifies the number of protons and
neutrons in the nucleus. The number at the lower left is the atomic number, or ‘Z’
number. The 'Z' number describes the number of protons in the nucleus and
determines the type of atom.
• The symbol for Uranium-238 = U238
92

This shows you that Uranium has a mass number of 238 and an atomic number
of 92.
Symbols are also utilized to represent alpha and beta particles.
• The symbol for an alpha particle = He2
4

• The symbol for a beta particle is e .

–1
0

• The chemical symbol for a neutron = n 0

1

Can you determine the mass number and atomic number of the neutron?

Now that we know what these symbols represent, let's see how they can be applied
to a nuclear equation. Uranium-238 is an isotope, which undergoes alpha decay to
produce Thorium and gamma rays. This is expressed mathematically by the
following equation:

Note that when the mass numbers on each side of the equation are added together
that they are equal. The same principle is true for the atomic numbers, and it
shows that none of the atomic particles have been lost. One way to check to see if
you have written the proper nuclear equation is to make sure both sides of the
equation have the same number or atomic particles represented.
Review:
1. A nuclear reaction can be described by an equation, which must be
balanced.
2. The symbol for an atom or atomic particle includes the symbol of
the element, the mass number, and the atomic number.
 3. The mass number, which describes the number of protons and
neutrons, is attached at the upper right of the symbol.
4. The atomic number, which describes the number of protons in the
nucleus, is attached at the lower left of the symbol.
RADIOACTIVE HALF-LIFE
After this reading this section you will be able to do the following:
• Define radioactive half-life.
• Explain how you measure the decay of radioactive isotopes.
• Compare two radioactive sources and determine their specific
activities in curies.
Not all of the atoms of a radioisotope decay at the same time, but they decay at a
rate that is characteristic to the isotope. The rate of decay is a fixed rate called
a half-life. The half-life of a radioisotope describes how long it takes for half of
the atoms in a given mass to decay. Some isotopes decay very rapidly and,
therefore, have a high specific activity. Others decay at a much slower rate.
How do you measure the decay of radioactive isotopes?
Now that we have an idea of how radioactive isotopes decay, let's look at how this
is measured and apply the terms we just learned.
The basic unit of measure for describing the activity (radioactivity) of a quantity
of radioactive material is the curie, named after Marie Curie. A quantity of
radioactive material is considered to have an activity of 1 curie or 1 C, when 37
billion of its atoms decay (disintegrate) in one second. In scientific terms, this is
expressed by the equation: 1C = 3.7 X 1010 disintegrations/sec. Remember that we
said each isotope has its own decay pattern. If the rate of decay is greater than
37 billion atoms in one second, then the source would have an activity greater than
one curie, and if that source had fewer than 37 billion atoms decaying in one
second, its activity would be less than one curie.
• Take this link to learn how to determine radioactive sources in curies:
○ Comparing Radioactive Activity
• Take this link to learn how to assess how much radiation is emitted from a
source:
○ Assessing the Amount of Radiation Coming From a Source
Now that you know that the activity of a radioactive source is the measure of the
number of atoms that decay each second and that the activity varies as a function
of the size of the source, let's see why half-life is important.
Review:
1. The term half-life describes how long it will take for half of the
atoms to is the fixed rate decay of an isotope.
2. The curie the unit of measure used to describe the radioactivity of
radioactive material. (1C = 3.7 X 1010 disintegrations/sec)
3. The disintegration of the atoms from different isotopes can
produce different amounts of radiation.

RADIOACTIVE HALF-LIFE (CONTINUED)

After this reading this section you will be able to do the following:
• Describe carbon dating and how half-life information is used.
• Explain how a radiographer uses half-life information.
As we have mentioned before each radioactive isotope has its own decay pattern.
Not only does it decay by giving off energy and matter, but it also decays at a rate
that is characteristic to itself. The rate at which a radioactive isotope decays is
measured in half-life. The term half-life is defined as the time it takes for one-
half of the atoms of a radioactive material to disintegrate. Half-lives for various
radioisotopes can range from a few microseconds to billions of years. See the table
below for a list of radioisotopes and each of unique their half-lives.
Radioisotope Half-life
Polonium-215 0.0018 seconds
Bismuth-212 60.5 seconds
Sodium-24 15 hours
Iodine-131 8.07 days
Cobalt-60 5.26 years
Radium-226 1600 years
Uranium-238 4.5 billion years
How does the half-life affect an isotope?
Let's look closely at how the half-life affects an isotope. Suppose you have 10
grams of Barium-139. It has a half-life of 86 minutes. After 86 minutes, half of
the atoms in the sample would have decayed into another element, Lanthanum-139.
Therefore, after one half-life, you would have 5 grams of Barium-139, and 5 grams
of Lanthanum-139. After another 86 minutes, half of the 5 grams of Barium-139
would decay into Lanthanum-139; you would now have 2.5 grams of Barium-139 and
7.5 grams of Lanthanum-139.
How is half-life information used in carbon dating?
The half-lives of certain types of radioisotopes are very useful to know. They allow
us to determine the ages of very old artifacts. Scientists can use the half-life of
Carbon-14 to determine the approximate age of organic objects less than 40,000
years old. By determining how much of the carbon-14 has transmutated, scientist
can calculate and estimate the age of a substance. This technique is known as
Carbon dating. Isotopes with longer half-lives such as Uranium-238 can be used to
date even older objects.
You will learn more about carbon dating in the next sub-unit.

Uses of the half-life in NDT

In the field of nondestructive testing radiographers (people who produce
radiographs to inspect objects) also use half-life information. A radiographer who
works with radioisotopes needs to know the specific half-life to properly
determine how much radiation the source in the camera is producing so that the
film can be exposed properly. After one half-life of a given radioisotope, only one
half as much of the original number of atoms remains active. Another way to look
at this is that if the radiation intensity is cut in half; the source will have only half
as many curies as it originally had. It is important to recognize that the intensity
or amount of radiation is decreasing due to age but not the penetrating energy of
the radiation. The energy of the radiation for a given isotope is considered to be
constant for the life of the isotope.
Review:
1. The half-life of radioisotopes varies from seconds to billions of
years.
2. Carbon-dating uses the half-life of Carbon-14 to find the
approximate age of an object that is 40,000 years old or younger.
3. Radiographers use half-life information to make adjustments in the
film exposure time due to the changes in radiation intensity that
occurs as radioisotopes degrade.
CARBON-14 DATING
After reading this section you will be able to do the following:
• Describe why carbon can be found in all living organisms.
• Explain how carbon can help determine the age of some objects.
As you learned in the previous page, carbon dating uses the half-life of Carbon-14
to find the approximate age of certain objects that are 40,000 years old or
younger. In the following section we are going to go more in-depth about carbon
dating in order to help you get a better understanding of how it works.
What exactly is radiocarbon dating?
Radiocarbon dating is a method of estimating the age of organic material. It was
developed right after World War II by Willard F. Libby and coworkers, and it has
provided a way to determine the ages of different materials in archeology, geology,
geophysics, and other branches of science. Some examples of the types of material
that radiocarbon can determine the ages of are wood, charcoal, marine and
freshwater shell, bone and antler, and peat and organic-bearing sediments. Age
determinations can also be obtained from carbonate deposits such as calcite,
dissolved carbon dioxide, and carbonates in ocean, lake, and groundwater sources.
How is carbon-14 produced?
Cosmic rays enter the earth's atmosphere in large numbers every day and when one
collides with an atom in the atmosphere, it can create a secondary cosmic ray in
the form of an energetic neutron. When these energetic neutrons collide with a
nitrogen-14 (seven protons, seven neutrons) atom it turns into a carbon-14 atom
(six protons, eight neutrons) and a hydrogen atom (one proton, zero neutrons).
Since Nitrogen gas makes up about 78 percent of the Earth's air, by volume, a
considerable amount of Carbon-14 is produced. The carbon-14 atoms combine with
oxygen to form carbon dioxide, which plants absorb naturally and incorporate into
plant fibers by photosynthesis. Animals and people take in carbon-14 by eating the
plants.
The ratio of normal carbon (carbon-12) to carbon-14 in the air and in all living
things at any given time is nearly constant. Maybe one in a trillion carbon atoms are
carbon-14. Both Carbon-12 and Carbon-13 are stable, but Carbon-14 decays by very
weak beta decay to nitrogen-14 with a half-life of approximately 5,730 years.
After the organism dies it stops taking in new carbon.
How do scientist use Carbon-14 to determine the age of an artifact?
To measure the amount of radiocarbon left in a artifact, scientists burn a small
piece to convert it into carbon dioxide gas. Radiation counters are used to detect
the electrons given off by decaying Carbon-14 as it turns into nitrogen. In order to
date the artifact, the amount of Carbon-14 is compared to the amount of Carbon-
12 (the stable form of carbon) to determine how much radiocarbon has decayed.
The ratio of carbon-12 to carbon-14 is the same in all living things. However, at the
moment of death, the amount of carbon-14 begins to decrease because it is
unstable, while the amount of carbon-12 remains constant in the sample. Half of
the carbon-14 degrades every 5,730 years as indicated by its half-life. By
measuring the ratio of carbon-12 to carbon-14 in the sample and comparing it to
the ratio in a living organism, it is possible to determine the age of the artifact.

Review:
1. Carbon-14 dating can determine the age of an artifact that is up to
40,000 years old.
2. Living organisms absorb carbon my eating and breathing.
3. After burning a small piece of an artifact, scientists compare the
amount of Carbon-14 to the amount of Carbon-12 to determine the
age of the object.
 X-RAY GENERATION
After this reading this section you will be able to do the following:
• Identify the three things needed to generate X-rays.
• Explain what role electrons play in the creation of X-rays.
So far our discussion has been primarily centered around radioactive elements, the
structure of the atom, and the phenomenon of radioactivity. As mentioned earlier,
another type of radiation commonly utilized is X-radiation. Where as gamma
radiation is one of the products of nuclear decay of radioactive elements, X-rays
are produced in high voltage electron tubes. You will recall from the history section
that W.C. Roentgen discovered X-ray in the late 1800's while working with a
cathode tube in his lab. X-rays can be produced in parcels of energy called photons,
just like light.
How do you generate an x-ray?
To generate x-rays, we must have three things. We need to have a source of
electrons, a means of accelerating the electrons at high speeds, and a target
material to receive the impact of the electrons and interact with them.
Why do we need electrons to produce x-rays?
X-rays are generated when free electrons give up some of their energy when they
interact with the orbital electrons or nucleus of an atom. The energy given up by
the electron during this interaction appears as electromagnetic energy known as X-
radiation. There are two different atomic processes that can produce x-ray
photons. One is called Bremsstrahlung and the other is called K-shell emission. X-
rays produced by Bremsstrahlung are the most useful for medical and industrial
applications.
 • Take this link to learn about a phenomenon in the generation of x-rays called
Bremsstrahlung:
○ What is Bremsstrahlung?

Review:
1. The three things needed to create x-rays are a source of electrons,
a means of accelerating the electrons to high speeds, and a target
for the accelerated electron to interact with.
2. X-rays are produced when the free electrons cause energy to be
released as they interact with the atomic particles in the