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Ceramic items are made of clay. The composition and type of fire on the clay,
determines what type of ceramic you have. There are three types, pottery,
stoneware or porcelain. Here is a list of characteristics of each.
1. Pottery
Pottery, also known as earthenware is a porous, lightweight material. While larger
piece can get very heavy, lightweight refers to the strength of the material. Pottery
is easily scratched and has a grainy texture. This is why it is used mainly for plants,
bowls or vases. While plates can be made of pottery, these should be mainly for
show. If you have to cut any food on your pottery plate, the plate will be scratched
by the knife. Because of pottery's composition, it is easy to manipulate. This is why
many people spin pottery as a hobby, making all sorts of items.
2. Ironstone
Ironstone, or stoneware, is a heavier material. It is nonporous, which gives it a fine-
grain. If these pieces are left unfired, they can be very casual or rugged, and used
for big pots or jugs. When ironstone is fired it is very smooth. You can use it for
large cooking dishes or delicate plates and candy jars. It is very difficult to scratch
with a knife.
3. Porcelain
Porcelain is widely used as plate. Its nonporous and glassy structure makes it
impossible to scratch with a knife. Depending on the style and fire on a porcelain
plate, it is probably called china. We used to call plates china only if they originated
from China. But, now, it is a common term, like Kleenex, to describe a type of dish
ware. Porcelain is a moderate weight. This give it an advantage as well for dishes,
so that everyone can pick them up and move them from place to place.
figure
Ceramic Properties
What is a Ceramic ?
The properties of ceramic materials, like all materials, are dictated by the types of atoms present,
the types of bonding between the atoms, and the way the atoms are packed together. This is
known as the atomic scale structure. Most ceramics are made up of two or more elements. This is
called a compound. For example, alumina (Al2O3), is a compound made up of aluminum atoms
and oxygen atoms.
The atoms in ceramic materials are held together by a chemical bond. The two most common
chemical bonds for ceramic materials are covalent and ionic. For metals, the chemical bond is
called the metallic bond. The bonding of atoms together is much stronger in covalent and ionic
bonding than in metallic. That is why, generally speaking, metals are ductile and ceramics are
brittle. Due to ceramic materials wide range of properties, they are used for a multitude of
applications. In general, most ceramics are:
• hard,
• wear-resistant,
• brittle,
• refractory,
• thermal insulators,
• electrical insulators,
• nonmagnetic,
• oxidation resistant,
• prone to thermal shock, and
• chemically stable.
What to do after BE in metallurgy?
A metallurgist can pursue his education further to M.Tech/M.E. and even can take
up a Phd. in a particular subject. Besides that jobs in industries, research institutes
and laboratories can also be... What is iron metallurgy?
The science of metal iron and its alloys is called iron metallurgy. What is
metallurgy?
Metallurgy is the art of working metals, comprehending the whole process of
separating them from other matters in the ore, smelting, refining, and parting them;
sometimes, in a narrower sense, only... What is primary metallurgy?
Primary Metallurgy is the science of extraction of metals from ores & minerals. If
there are more than one ways of extracting a metal from its ore or mineral, then the
process which gives a more...
Contents
• 1 Definition
• 2 Calculation
• 3 London dispersion force
• 4 Use by animals
• 5 Footnotes
• 6 References
• 7 External links
Definition
Van der Waals forces include attractions between atoms, molecules, and surfaces. They differ
from covalent and ionic bonding in that they are caused by correlations in the fluctuating
polarizations of nearby particles (a consequence of quantum dynamics).
Intermolecular forces have four major contributions. In general an intermolecular potential has a
repulsive component (which prevents the collapse of molecules because of the Pauli exclusion
principle). It also has an attractive component, which, in turn, consists of three distinct
contributions:
1. The electrostatic interactions between charges (in the case of molecular ions), dipoles (in
the case of molecules without inversion center), quadrupoles (all molecules with
symmetry lower than cubic), and in general between permanent multipoles. The
electrostatic interaction is sometimes called the Keesom interaction or Keesom force after
Willem Hendrik Keesom.
2. The second source of attraction is induction (also known as polarization), which is the
interaction between a permanent multipole on one molecule with an induced multipole on
another. This interaction is sometimes measured in debyes after Peter J.W. Debye.
3. The third attraction is usually named after Fritz London who himself called it dispersion.
This is the only attraction experienced by non-polar atoms, but it is operative between
any pair of molecules, irrespective of their symmetry.
Returning to nomenclature, different texts refer to different things using the term "van der Waals
force". Some texts mean by the van der Waals force the totality of forces (including repulsion);
others mean all the attractive forces (and then sometimes distinguish van der Waals-Keesom, van
der Waals-Debye, and van der Waals-London); finally, some use the term "van der Waals force"
solely as a synonym for the London/dispersion force.[clarification needed] A common trend is that
biochemistry and biology books, more frequently than chemistry books, use "van der Waals
forces" as a synonym for London forces only.
All intermolecular/van der Waals forces are anisotropic (except those between two noble gas
atoms), which means that they depend on the relative orientation of the molecules. The induction
and dispersion interactions are always attractive, irrespective of orientation, but the electrostatic
interaction changes sign upon rotation of the molecules. That is, the electrostatic force can be
attractive or repulsive, depending on the mutual orientation of the molecules. When molecules
are in thermal motion, as they are in the gas and liquid phase, the electrostatic force is averaged
out to a large extent, because the molecules thermally rotate and thus probe both repulsive and
attractive parts of the electrostatic force. Sometimes this effect is expressed by the statement that
"random thermal motion around room temperature can usually overcome or disrupt them"
(which refers to the electrostatic component of the van der Waals force). Clearly, the thermal
averaging effect is much less pronounced for the attractive induction and dispersion forces.
The Lennard-Jones potential is often used as an approximate model for the isotropic part of a
total (repulsion plus attraction) van der Waals force as a function of distance.
Van der Waals forces are responsible for certain cases of pressure broadening (van der Waals
broadening) of spectral lines and the formation of van der Waals molecules. The London-van der
Waals forces are related to the Casimir effect for dielectric media, the former being the
microscopic description of the latter bulk property. The first detailed calculations of this were
done in 1955 by E. M. Lifshitz.[2][3]
Calculation
Updated 06/24/10 DIS Meetings - 2010 Fall Meeting, October 27-29, 2010
Metal
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about metallic materials. For other uses, see Metal (disambiguation).
Metals
Alkali metals
Transition metals
Zinc, Molybdenum, Cadmium
Hassium, Meitnerium,
Post-transition metals
Ununtrium, Ununquadium
Ununpentium, Ununhexium
Lanthanoids
Actinoids
v • d • e
A metal is a chemical element that is a good conductor of both electricity and heat and forms
cations and ionic bonds with non-metals. In chemistry, a metal (from Greek "μέταλλον" -
métallon, "mine"[1]) is an element, compound, or alloy characterized by high electrical
conductivity. In a metal, atoms readily lose electrons to form positive ions (cations). Those ions
are surrounded by delocalized electrons, which are responsible for the conductivity. The solid
thus produced is held by electrostatic interactions between the ions and the electron cloud, which
are called metallic bonds.[2]
Usage in astronomy is quite different.
Contents
[hide]
• 1 Definition
○ 1.1 Astronomy
• 2 Properties
○ 2.1 Chemical
○ 2.2 Physical
○ 2.3 Electrical
○ 2.4 Mechanical
• 3 Alloys
• 4 Categories
○ 4.1 Base metal
○ 4.2 Ferrous metal
○ 4.3 Noble metal
○ 4.4 Precious metal
• 5 Extraction
• 6 Metallurgy
• 7 Applications
• 8 Trade
• 9 See also
• 10 References
• 11 External links
[edit] Definition
This section does not cite any references or sources.
Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced
material may be challenged and removed. (July 2010)
In the specialized usage of astronomy and astrophysics, the term "metal" is often used to refer
collectively to all elements other than hydrogen or helium, including substances as chemically
non-metallic as neon, fluorine, and oxygen. Nearly all the hydrogen and helium in the Universe
was created in Big Bang nucleosynthesis, whereas all the "metals" were produced by
nucleosynthesis in stars or supernovae. The Sun and the Milky Way Galaxy are composed of
roughly 74% hydrogen, 24% helium, and 2% "metals" (the rest of the elements; atomic numbers
3-118) by mass.[3]
The concept of a metal in the usual chemical sense is irrelevant in stars, as the chemical bonds
that give elements their properties cannot exist at stellar temperatures.
[edit] Properties
[edit] Chemical
Metals are usually inclined to form cations through electron loss,[2] reacting with oxygen in the
air to form oxides over changing timescales (iron rusts over years, while potassium burns in
seconds). Examples:
4 Na + O2 → 2 Na2O (sodium oxide)
The transition metals (such as iron, copper, zinc, and nickel) take much longer to oxidize. Others,
like palladium, platinum and gold, do not react with the atmosphere at all. Some metals form a
barrier layer of oxide on their surface which cannot be penetrated by further oxygen molecules
and thus retain their shiny appearance and good conductivity for many decades (like aluminium,
some steels, and titanium). The oxides of metals are generally basic, as opposed to those of
nonmetals, which are acidic.
Painting, anodizing or plating metals are good ways to prevent their corrosion. However, a more
reactive metal in the electrochemical series must be chosen for coating, especially when chipping
of the coating is expected. Water and the two metals form an electrochemical cell, and if the
coating is less reactive than the coatee, the coating actually promotes corrosion.
[edit] Physical
Gallium crystals
Metals in general have high electrical conductivity, thermal conductivity, luster and density, and
the ability to be deformed under stress without cleaving.[2] While there are several metals that
have low density, hardness, and melting points, these (the alkali and alkaline earth metals) are
extremely reactive, and are rarely encountered in their elemental, metallic form. Optically
speaking, metals are opaque, shiny and lustrous. This is due to the fact that visible lightwaves are
not readily transmitted through the bulk of their microstructure. The large number of free
electrons in any typical metallic solid (element or alloy) is responsible for the fact that they can
never be categorized as transparent materials.
The majority of metals have higher densities than the majority of nonmetals.[2] Nonetheless, there
is wide variation in the densities of metals; lithium is the least dense solid element and osmium is
the densest. The metals of groups I A and II A are referred to as the light metals because they are
exceptions to this generalization[2]. The high density of most metals is due to the tightly packed
crystal lattice of the metallic structure. The strength of metallic bonds for different metals
reaches a maximum around the center of the transition series, as those elements have large
amounts of delocalized electrons in a metallic bond. However, other factors (such as atomic
radius, nuclear charge, number of bonding orbitals, overlap of orbital energies, and crystal form)
are involved as well.[2]
[edit] Electrical
The electrical and thermal conductivity of metals originate from the fact that in the metallic
bond, the outer electrons of the metal atoms form a gas of nearly free electrons, moving as an
electron gas in a background of positive charge formed by the ion cores. Good mathematical
predictions for electrical conductivity, as well as the electrons' contribution to the heat capacity
and heat conductivity of metals can be calculated from the free electron model, which does not
take the detailed structure of the ion lattice into account.
When considering the exact band structure and binding energy of a metal, it is necessary to take
into account the positive potential caused by the specific arrangement of the ion cores - which is
periodic in crystals. The most important consequence of the periodic potential is the formation of
a small band gap at the boundary of the Brillouin zone. Mathematically, the potential of the ion
cores can be treated by various models, the simplest being the nearly free electron model.
[edit] Mechanical
Mechanical properties of metals include ductility, which is largely due to their inherent capacity
for plastic deformation. Reversible elasticity in metals can be described by Hooke's Law for
restoring forces, where the stress is linearly proportional to the strain. Forces larger than the
elastic limit, or heat, may cause a permanent (irreversible) deformation of the object, known as
plastic deformation or plasticity. This irreversible change in atomic arrangement may occur as a
result of:
• The action of an applied force (or work). An applied force may be tensile
(pulling) force, compressive (pushing) force, shear, bending or torsion
(twisting) forces.
• A change in temperature (or heat). A temperature change may affect the
mobility of the structural defects such as grain boundaries, point vacancies,
line and screw dislocations, stacking faults and twins in both crystalline and
non-crystalline solids. The movement or displacement of such mobile defects
is thermally activated, and thus limited by the rate of atomic diffusion.
Viscous flow near grain boundaries, for example, can give rise to internal slip, creep and fatigue
in metals. It can also contribute to significant changes in the microstructure like grain growth and
localized densification due to the elimination of intergranular porosity. Screw dislocations may
slip in the direction of any lattice plane containing the dislocation, while the principal driving
force for "dislocation climb" is the movement or diffusion of vacancies through a crystal lattice.
In addition, the nondirectional nature of metallic bonding is also thought to contribute
significantly to the ductility of most metallic solids. When the planes of an ionic bond slide past
one another, the resultant change in location shifts ions of the same charge into close proximity,
resulting in the cleavage of the crystal; such shift is not observed in covalently bonded crystals
where fracture and crystal fragmentation occurs.[4]
[edit] Alloys
Main article: Alloy
An alloy is a mixture of two or more elements in solid solution in which the major component is
a metal. Most pure metals are either too soft, brittle or chemically reactive for practical use.
Combining different ratios of metals as alloys modifies the properties of pure metals to produce
desirable characteristics. The aim of making alloys is generally to make them less brittle, harder,
resistant to corrosion, or have a more desirable color and luster. Of all the metallic alloys in use
today, the alloys of iron (steel, stainless steel, cast iron, tool steel, alloy steel) make up the largest
proportion both by quantity and commercial value. Iron alloyed with various proportions of
carbon gives low, mid and high carbon steels, with increasing carbon levels reducing ductility
and toughness. The addition of silicon will produce cast irons, while the addition of chromium,
nickel and molybdenum to carbon steels (more than 10%) results in stainless steels.
Other significant metallic alloys are those of aluminium, titanium, copper and magnesium.
Copper alloys have been known since prehistory—bronze gave the Bronze Age its name—and
have many applications today, most importantly in electrical wiring. The alloys of the other three
metals have been developed relatively recently; due to their chemical reactivity they require
electrolytic extraction processes. The alloys of aluminium, titanium and magnesium are valued
for their high strength-to-weight ratios; magnesium can also provide electromagnetic
shielding[citation needed]. These materials are ideal for situations where high strength-to-weight ratio is
more important than material cost, such as in aerospace and some automotive applications.
Alloys specially designed for highly demanding applications, such as jet engines, may contain
more than ten elements.
[edit] Categories
[edit] Base metal
Main article: Base metal
In chemistry, the term base metal is used informally to refer to a metal that oxidizes or corrodes
relatively easily, and reacts variably with dilute hydrochloric acid (HCl) to form hydrogen.
Examples include iron, nickel, lead and zinc. Copper is considered a base metal as it oxidizes
relatively easily, although it does not react with HCl. It is commonly used in opposition to noble
metal.
In alchemy, a base metal was a common and inexpensive metal, as opposed to precious metals,
mainly gold and silver. A longtime goal of the alchemists was the transmutation of base metals
into precious metals.
In numismatics, coins used to derive their value primarily from the precious metal content. Most
modern currencies are fiat currency, allowing the coins to be made of base metal.
[edit] Ferrous metal
Main article: Ferrous and non-ferrous metals
The term "ferrous" is derived from the Latin word meaning "containing iron". This can include
pure iron, such as wrought iron, or an alloy such as steel. Ferrous metals are often magnetic, but
not exclusively.
[edit] Noble metal
Main article: Noble metal
Noble metals are metals that are resistant to corrosion or oxidation, unlike most base metals.
They tend to be precious metals, often due to perceived rarity. Examples include tantalum, gold,
platinum, silver and rhodium.
[edit] Precious metal
A gold nugget
Metals are often extracted from the Earth by means of mining, resulting in ores that are relatively
rich sources of the requisite elements. Ore is located by prospecting techniques, followed by the
exploration and examination of deposits. Mineral sources are generally divided into surface
mines, which are mined by excavation using heavy equipment, and subsurface mines.
Once the ore is mined, the metals must be extracted, usually by chemical or electrolytic
reduction. Pyrometallurgy uses high temperatures to convert ore into raw metals, while
hydrometallurgy employs aqueous chemistry for the same purpose. The methods used depend on
the metal and their contaminants.
When a metal ore is an ionic compound of that metal and a non-metal, the ore must usually be
smelted — heated with a reducing agent — to extract the pure metal. Many common metals,
such as iron, are smelted using carbon as a reducing agent. Some metals, such as aluminium and
sodium, have no commercially practical reducing agent, and are extracted using electrolysis
instead.[5]
Sulfide ores are not reduced directly to the metal but are roasted in air to convert them to oxides.
[edit] Metallurgy
Main article: Metallurgy
Metallurgy is a domain of materials science that studies the physical and chemical behavior of
metallic elements, their intermetallic compounds, and their mixtures, which are called alloys.
[edit] Applications
Some metals and metal alloys possess high structural strength per unit mass, making them useful
materials for carrying large loads or resisting impact damage. Metal alloys can be engineered to
have high resistance to shear, torque and deformation. However the same metal can also be
vulnerable to fatigue damage through repeated use or from sudden stress failure when a load
capacity is exceeded. The strength and resilience of metals has led to their frequent use in high-
rise building and bridge construction, as well as most vehicles, many appliances, tools, pipes,
non-illuminated signs and railroad tracks.
The two most commonly used structural metals, iron and aluminium, are also the most abundant
metals in the Earth's crust.[6]
Metals are good conductors, making them valuable in electrical appliances and for carrying an
electric current over a distance with little energy lost. Electrical power grids rely on metal cables
to distribute electricity. Home electrical systems, for the most part, are wired with copper wire
for its good conducting properties.
The thermal conductivity of metal is useful for containers to heat materials over a flame. Metal is
also used for heat sinks to protect sensitive equipment from overheating.
The high reflectivity of some metals is important in the construction of mirrors, including
precision astronomical instruments. This last property can also make metallic jewelry
aesthetically appealing.
Some metals have specialized uses; radioactive metals such as uranium and plutonium are used
in nuclear power plants to produce energy via nuclear fission. Mercury is a liquid at room
temperature and is used in switches to complete a circuit when it flows over the switch contacts.
Shape memory alloy is used for applications such as pipes, fasteners and vascular stents.
[edit] Trade
The World Bank reports that China was the top importer of ores and metals in 2005 followed by
the U.S.A. and Japan.[7]
[edit] See also
• Amorphous metal
• ASM International (society)
• Ductility
• Electric field screening
• Metal theft
• Metalworking
• Periodic table (metals and non-metals)
• Properties and uses of metals
• Solid
• Steel
• Structural steel
• Transition metal
[edit] References
1. ^ μέταλλον, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on
Perseus Digital Library
2. ^ a b c d e f Mortimer, Charles E. (1975). Chemistry: A Conceptual Approach
(3rd ed.). New York:: D. Van Nostrad Company.
3. ^ Sparke, Linda S.; Gallagher, John S. (2000). Galaxies in the Universe (1 ed.).
Cambridge University Press. p. 8. ISBN 0521592410.
4. ^ Ductility - strength of materials
5. ^ "Los Alamos National Laboratory – Sodium". Retrieved 2007-06-08.
6. ^ Frank Kreith and Yogi Goswami, eds. (2004). The CRC Handbook of
Mechanical Engineering, 2nd edition. Boca Raton. p. 12-2.
7. ^ Structure of merchandise imports
Periodic
tables
[hide]
v • d • e
Periodic table
H He
B
Li B C N O F Ne
e
M
Na Al Si P S Cl Ar
g
C S M F C N C Z
K Ti V Cr Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
a c n e o i u n
S ZN M R R P A C
Rb Y Tc In Sn Sb Te I Xe
r r b o u h d g d
B L C P N P S G T D H T Y L HT R O A H
Cs Eu Er W Ir Pt Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
a a e r d m m d b y o m b u f a e s u g
R A T P N P A C B C E F M N L RD B H M D R C Uu Uu Uu Uu Uu Uu
Fr U Sg
a c h a p u m m k f s md o r f b h s t s g n t q p h s o
Alkaline Other
Alkali Lanthani Actinide Transitio Other Metalloi Halogen Noble
earth nonmeta
metals des s n metals metals ds s gases
metals ls
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