Excerpt from the Proceedings of the COMSOL Multiphysics User's Conference 2005 Paris

3D electromagnetic modelling of a cold crucible for induction electro-

processing of materials

Roland ERNST, EPM-MADYLAM laboratory, CNRS, Saint Martin d’Hères, France

1. Introduction metallic alloys and 5000°C to 10000°C in cold

The cold crucible is a tool which is
frequently used for induction heating applications
for the elaboration of materials by middle or high
frequency magnetic field. This crucible is made of
copper sectors assembled together to form the
container in which the electroconductive material is
molten (figure 1). Each sector is water cooled,
which keeps the crucible cold when the material is
heated and molten inside it thanks to the induced
currents produced by a surrounding inductor.
The main advantage of this kind of cold
crucible compared with classical “hot” crucibles
made of graphite or oxides is that there are no
physicochemical reactions between the molten
material and the crucible. This is why the cold
crucible is used for the elaboration of materials
which require a high degree of purity.
There are mainly two types of cold
crucibles: the first one has an inner wall of
hemispherical (or conical) shape with a casting hole
in the bottom1,2, so that it is possible to elaborate a
given quantity of material. The second one has a
vertical straight cylindrical inner wall allowing the
continuous casting of a solidified ingot thanks to a
downward mechanical pulling device at the bottom,
obtained by melting of scraps which are introduced
on the top of the crucible in a liquid phase (“cold
crucible continuous casting process3”).
In the model presented here a cold crucible
of the first type with a hemispherical inner wall
shape with a casting hole at the bottom is modelled.
The electromagnetic working principle of this
device is the following (figure 1): the several turns
inductor surrounding the cold crucible works at
middle or high frequency. Due to the magnetic field
produced by the inductor, current densities are
flowing around each sector of the cold crucible
since each sector is isolated from the next one by a
slit of about half a millimetre. Thus each copper
sector couples with the inductor like an induced
charge and acts like a short-circuited transformer
secondary whose primary is the inductor. Thanks to
this slotted “electromagnetic active” crucible, the
magnetic field is transmitted from the inductor
towards the inside of the crucible and gives
consequently induced current densities in the
charge itself4. These current densities in the
material to elaborate are at first the heating source
for the temperature rise, but give also, combined
with the magnetic field, electromagnetic forces
which are able to levitate the charge, keeping it far
enough from the cold crucible inner wall so that it
is possible to reach high temperatures (3300°C for
crucible induction plasma torches5).
The 3D modelling of such a geometrical
complex configuration with Femlab gives highly
interesting information like for instance the
influence of the slits thickness, or the influence of
the inner shape of the crucible (hemispherical or
conical) for a proper design of an efficient melting
device. The model uses both a magnetic vector
potential and electric potential “A and V”
formulation which gives not only the magnetic
aspects due to the inductive effects like the real
current density repartition in the inductor, sectors
and charge, but also the “electrostatic” behaviour
due to the capacitive effects like the electric
floating potentials and the electric potential
variation in the sectors and the charge, thus giving
also interesting information about the flash risks
due to the voltage difference between the sectors
themselves or between them and the charge or the
inductor.
The industrial applications area of cold
crucible processes is very wide6: it is for instance
used in metallurgic or aeronautic industry for
metallic alloys production or for the elaboration of
titanium medical prostheses. It is also used in the
photovoltaic industry for continuous casting of
polycrystalline silicon or in the oxides elaboration
area (glass industry). Another application area is the
high power inductive plasma torches including a
cold crucible for high temperature powder
treatment.
Figure 1: cold crucible working principle
 Excerpt from the Proceedings of the COMSOL Multiphysics User's Conference 2005 Paris
The modelled cold crucible configuration
geometry is presented in the next part 2. In part 3
the equations and specific characteristics of the
model are presented. Some main results about the
electromagnetic phenomena obtained by the
modelling are given in part 4. At last some
perspectives features of the model are highlighted
in part 5.
2. Cold crucible configuration geometry
The geometry of the modelled cold
crucible configuration with the main dimensions
(mm) is given in figure 2.
100
80
60
40
30
2 4
10
30
40
z
Input voltage : 1 Volts O
x y
Figure 2: cold crucible configuration geometry
It corresponds to a laboratory scale
induction furnace installation for elaboration of
metallic alloys. The inductor is a 2 turns helical
coil, made of 10 mm diameter copper tube, with a
total height of 40 mm. The copper cold crucible has
an inner hemispherical shape (radius: 30 mm) and 4
sectors. In order to study the influence of the slits
thickness, the 2 slits along the x direction are 2 mm
thick, when the 2 slits along the y direction are 4
mm thick. The bottom of the crucible is fitted out
with a 10 mm diameter casting hole. During the
melting state in the real process this casting hole is
shut by a casting finger which is then removed,
which allows the casting of the liquid alloy in a
mould set under the cold crucible. The casting
finger and the mould are not taken in account in the
numerical model. At last a spherical copper charge
is set in the crucible (diameter: 40 mm - centre at a
height of 30 mm with the z axis origin set at the
bottom of the cold crucible). The frequency is
chosen at 10 kHz which implies an electromagnetic
skin depth of about 0.7 mm in the copper elements,
which may be considered as small compared to the
dimensions of these elements. It is thus possible to
model the inductor, crucible and charge with
impedance boundary conditions as it will be
explained in the next part. A normalised 1 Volt
input voltage is set on the inductor ends. This is the
most realistic assumption since both ends of the
inductor are generally connected in parallel with a
capacity, thus forming an oscillating circuit which
is connected to a voltage induction generator. The
resulting current density in the inductor, crucible
and charge is then free to be distributed according
to the mutual interaction between all the electrical
conductive elements.
3. Numerical model description
3.1 Main features of the model
The quasi-statics electromagnetics
equation group of the Femlab electromagnetics
module is used here in time-harmonic analysis type.
Both magnetic and electric properties are set
meaning that both the vector potential A (3 space
components Ax,Ay,Az) and the scalar electric
potential V (1 component) are the physical
unknowns to solve. The Coulomb gauge fixing
( ∇A = 0 ) for the solution’s unicity adds a 5th
unknown (the ψ function) on each mesh node.
Vector elements and linear elements are
respectively used for A and V. As the
electromagnetic skin depth is small compared with
the dimensions of the inductor, cold crucible and
charge, these elements are treated with impedance
boundary conditions. This means that in these 3
elements all the electrical parameters in the small
electromagnetic skin depth are “brought” to their
outer surface where an “impedance boundary
condition” relation is set since these surfaces
become boundaries, with also an “electric
insulation” condition. Thus the inner volume of
these 3 elements is removed from the domain to
study. The other boundaries are the external
surfaces of a surrounding cylinder on which
respectively “magnetic insulation” and “ground”
magnetic and electric boundary conditions are set.
This is summarized on figure 3.
- Magnetic insulation
- Ground
- Impedance boundary
conditions
- Electric insulation
V=1 Volts
Ground
Figure 3: boundary conditions set
The only remaining subdomain is the air
between all these surfaces. Its relative permeability
 Excerpt from the Proceedings of the COMSOL Multiphysics User's Conference 2005 Paris
μr is 1, its electric conductivity σ is 0 and its
relative permittivity εr is 1.
3.2 Equations of the model
There are 4 physical variables: the scalar
electric potential V and the 3 components of the
vector potential Ax,Ay,Az. In the air subdomain, 4
equations are needed which are the current density J
conservation (1 equation) and the vector potential
diffusion equation (3 equations). These equations
are expressed as following:
− ∇(( jωσ − ω 2ε 0ε r ) A + (σ + jωε 0ε r )∇V − Je ) = 0
−1 −1
( jωσ − ω ε 0ε r ) A + ∇ × ( μ 0 μ r ∇ × A)
2
+ (σ + jωε 0 ε r )∇V = Je
Je is the external source current density (there is no
here) and ω is the pulsation.
On the boundaries which are the outer
surfaces of the inductor, cold crucible and charge, 4
equations are also needed. The 1rst one is the
surface current density Js conservation (1 equation)
and the “impedance boundary conditions” relation
(3 equations). The “impedance boundary
conditions” relation is written as following:
Z s −1 ( n × H ) + E − ( n ⋅ E ) ⋅ E = 0
Zs is the surface impedance given by:
ε 0ε r − jσ / ω
Zs =
μ0 μ r
n is the outward normal (which points toward the
inward direction of the inductor, cold crucible and
Figure 4: general view of the main modelling results (half charge removed from plot)
charge since these elements have been removed and
their surface become boundaries), H is the magnetic
field and E is the electric field. H and E are
expressed with respect of A and V. The magnetic,
and electric properties are those of the copper
material, meaning μr=1, εr= 1 and σ=0.5e8 Sm-1. It
can be shown that the surface current density Js
conservation equation ( ∇J s = 0 ) is expressed as a
weak term which is the following:
− Z s ((VTx + jωAx ) ⋅ VTx _ test
+ (VTy + jωAy ) ⋅ VTy _ test
+ (VTy + jωAz ) ⋅ VTz _ test )
VTx,VTy and VTz are the components of the
tangential gradient of V on the surfaces.
VTx_test,VTy_test and VTz_test are the related test
functions. An “electric insulation” (nJ=0) condition
is also given on these surfaces except on both ends
of the inductor where 1 Volt is imposed on the
upper one when the lower one is grounded.
At last on the external boundaries of the
surrounding cylinder, an electric ground condition
(1 equation: V=0) and a magnetic insulation
condition (3 equations: n × A = 0 ) are set.
4. Modelling results
Figure 4 gives a general plot of some main
characteristic parameters: the B magnetic flux
density lines, the Js surface current density flow
(arrows), and the surface current density norm with
the colour bar, after removing the half of the charge
from the plot.
 Excerpt from the Proceedings of the COMSOL Multiphysics User's Conference 2005 Paris
This view shows that Js is more located in
the inner part of the inductor turns, which is due to
the mutual interaction between all the current
densities. It shows also that Js is located on about
the same height as the inductor in the outer walls of
the cold crucible, when it loops in the inner walls
much more concentrated on the bottom because of
the attraction due to Js in the charge.
This is more clearly apparent in figure 5
which gives the Js flow (arrows) and norm (colour)
in one sector (after removing from the plot all the
other elements).
Figure 5: Js flow and norm in one sector
In this view the influence of the slits
thickness appears also, since Js turns around the left
edge between the left slit (thickness 4 mm) and the
inner wall much higher than on the right edge
between the inner wall and the right slit (thickness
2 mm). This shows that the larger the slit is, the
better Js is distributed over the inner wall, which
implies obviously a better heating and levitation of
the charge.
Figure 6 focuses on the Js distribution in
the charge after removing all the other elements
from the plot.
Figure 6: Js distribution in the charge
This view shows also a strong influence of
the slits: Js is not flowing in circular tracks around
the charge, but more in arc tracks with a flowing up
and down opposite to each slit. This strong 3D
effect is due to the slits and is more accentuated
opposite to the thicker slits.
Figure 7 gives the general distribution of
the electric potential V in the inductor, cold
crucible and charge.
Figure 7: electric potential distribution
These “electric properties” are
complementary to the former “magnetic properties”
and are also very interesting from an “electrostatic”
point of view for a proper design of this type of
induction system. Indeed this gives information
about the capacitive behaviour of such a system,
especially the floating potential of the cold crucible
and charge, which may imply electric flash risks
during working, especially in high frequency area.
Figure 7 shows that V decreases regularly in the
inductor from 1 Volt (normalised) on the upper end
to 0 Volt imposed on the lower end. On the same
time, the front sector “floats” at about 0.3 Volts,
meaning lower than the left sector which “floats” at
about 0.4 Volts. This comes from the “electrostatic”
capacitive charge of the cold crucible due to the
displacement currents in the Maxwell equations
which depend on the permittivity of the air (or gas).
Indeed, the front sector being opposite to the lower
inductor turns (which are in helix wound) which are
at the lower voltage is capacitively charged at a
lower potential than the left sector being opposite to
the higher inductor turns which are at the higher
voltage.
Figure 8 focuses on the electric potential V
in one sector.
A
D
C B
Figure 8: electric potential distribution in one
sector
This shows that V varies from about 0.32
Volts to about 0.34 Volts around the sector, which
is also shown in figure 9 on a line plot of V along
the ABCD (figure 8) upper edge of the sector. V
increases from A when going through B, C and D
points and then decreases until coming back to A
 Excerpt from the Proceedings of the COMSOL Multiphysics User's Conference 2005 Paris

point on the outer edge. This gives also the voltage
difference in each slit (meaning between the 2 slit
faces) which is here VD-VA=0.02 Volts. This value
is related to the 1 Volt normalised inductor input
voltage. In a real situation, V may be for instance
1000 Volts, which implies then a slit voltage
difference of VD-VA=20 Volts, and the
corresponding average floating potential of the
sector (0.33 Volts in figure 9) is then about 330
Volts, which must be taken in consideration for the
flash risks in this kind of device.
C D
Femlab is able to model complex inductive
systems. An original and interesting feature is the
solving of both magnetic and electric properties,
which gives not only the magnetic behaviour due to
the inductive part, but also the electric or
“electrostatic” behaviour due to the capacitive part
which is also present in an induction system and is
due to the displacement currents in the Maxwell
equations which are function of the electric field
and the permittivity of the air (or gas).
At last, thanks to Femlab, it will be
possible to optimise complex induction systems,
which is very important for the industrial scale
working of such processes for the elaboration of
materials in a wide range of applications.

References

1. J. DRIOLE, I. LAVIALLE, F. REVET, F. DURAND : Rev.

A A
B DOUR, F. DURAND: Proc. Int. EPM Conf., Paris, 1997, 2, 303-
Figure 9: electric potential repartition along the
upper sector edge
Métallurgie, 1994, 1759-1766.
2. J.-C. TRICOU, J. DRIOLE : Proc. Int. EPM Conf., Paris,
1997, 1, 395-398.
3. P.-J. RIBEYRON, A. GAGNOUD, M. ANDERHUBER, G.
308.
4. D. DELAGE, R. ERNST : Rev. Gén. d’Electricité, 1983, 266-
272.
5. C. ALEMANY, Y. DELANNOY, Y. FAUTRELLE: Proc. Int.
EPM Conf., Nagoya, 2000, 2, 265-270.
6. F. DURAND : Int. Journ. of Cast Metals Research, 2005, 18.

5. Perspectives and conclusion

Thanks to the “domain integration” or
“boundary integration” possibilities of the different
electric quantities (like the power density, the
surface current density), it is easy to determine
important data like the impedance, the inductance,
the resistance of the system, the levitation force on
the charge and also the power distribution in the
inductor, cold crucible and charge and consequently
the efficiency. These data are precious for the
proper conception of this device and its correct
matching on the induction generator.
The next stage is to couple these
electromagnetic aspects with the heat transfer
phenomena in the charge. A coupling with the fluid
mechanics in the charge is also forecast in order to
determine the real shape of the charge (thanks to
moving meshes) and the electromagnetic stirring in
the charge.
Another next stage is to model this kind of
cold crucible system which presents a “revolution
periodicity” due to the sectorization thanks to the
“periodic boundary conditions” possibilities. This
method will allow modelling only an elementary
part of the whole system. In the same area, the
“mesh revolving” possibilities will allow to mesh
the 3D domains by revolving a 2D meridian cross
section meshed in quadrangular meshes. This will
save many meshes and will allow modelling thin
slits.
The 3D electromagnetic modelling of a
cold crucible system presented here shows that