Asymptote

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For other uses, see Asymptote (disambiguation).

The graph of a function with a horizontal, vertical, and oblique asymptote.

A curve intersecting an asymptote infinitely many times.

In analytic geometry, an asymptote of a curve is a line such that the distance between the
curve and the line approaches zero as they tend to infinity. Some sources include the
requirement that the curve may not cross the line infinitely often, but this is unusual for
modern authors.[1] In some contexts, such as algebraic geometry, an asymptote is defined
as line which is tangent to a curve at infinity.[2][3]
The word asymptote is derived from the Greek asymptotos which means "not falling
together," from ἀ priv. + σύν "together" + πτωτ-ός "fallen."[4] The term was introduced
by Apollonius of Perga in his work on conic sections, but in contrast to its modern
meaning, he used it to mean any line that does not intersect the given curve.[5]
For curves given by the graph of a function y = ƒ(x), there are potentially three kinds of
asymptotes: horizontal, vertical and oblique asymptotes. Horizontal asymptotes are
horizontal lines that the graph of the function approaches as x tends to +∞ or −∞. Vertical
asymptotes are vertical lines near which the function grows without bound.
More generally, one curve is a curvilinear asymptote of another (as opposed to a linear
asymptote) if the distance between the two curves tends to zero as they tend to infinity,
although usually the term asymptote by itself is reserved for linear asymptotes.
Asymptotes convey much of the information about the behavior of curves in the large,
and determining the asymptotes of a function is an important step in sketching its graph.[6]
The study of asymptotes of functions, construed in a broad sense, forms a part of the
subject of asymptotic analysis.

Contents
[hide]
• 1 A simple example
• 2 Asymptotes of functions
○ 2.1 Vertical asymptotes
○ 2.2 Horizontal asymptotes
○ 2.3 Oblique asymptotes
• 3 Elementary methods for identifying asymptotes
○ 3.1 General computation of oblique asymptotes for
functions
○ 3.2 Asymptotes for rational functions
 3.2.1 Oblique asymptotes of rational functions
○ 3.3 Transformations of known functions
• 4 General definition
• 5 Curvilinear asymptotes
• 6 Asymptotes and curve tracing
• 7 Algebraic curves
• 8 Other uses of the term
• 9 See also
• 10 References
• 11 External links
[edit] A simple example

graphed on Cartesian coordinates. The x and y-axes are the

asymptotes.

The idea that a curve may come arbitrarily close to a line without actually becoming the
same may seem counter to everyday experience. The representations of a line and a curve
as marks on a piece of paper or as pixels on a computer screen have a positive width. So
if they were to be extended far enough they would seem to merge together, at least as far
as the eye could discern. But these are physical representations of the corresponding
mathematical entities; the line and the curve are idealized concepts whose width is 0 (see
Line). Therefore the understanding of the idea of an asymptote requires an effort of
reason rather than experience.
Consider the graph of the equation y=1/x shown to the right. The coordinates of the
points on the curve are of the form (x, 1/x) where x is a number other than 0. For
example, the graph contains the points (1, 1), (2, 0.5), (5, 0.2), (10, 0.1), …. As the values
of x become larger and larger, say 100, 1000, 10,000 …, putting them far to the right of
the illustration, the corresponding values of y, .01, .001, .0001, …, become microscopic
relative to the scale shown. But no matter how large x becomes (short of infinity), its
reciprocal 1/x is never 0, so the curve never actually touches the x-axis. Similarly, as the
values of x become smaller and smaller, say .01, .001, .0001, …, making them
microscopic relative to the scale shown, the corresponding values of y, 100, 1000, 10,000
…, become larger and larger. So the curve extends farther and farther upward as it comes
closer and closer to the y-axis. Thus, both the x and y-axes are asymptotes of the curve.
These ideas are part of the basis of concept of a limit in mathematics, and this connection
is explained more fully below.[7]
[edit] Asymptotes of functions
The asymptotes most commonly encountered in the study of calculus are of curves of the
form y = ƒ(x). These can be computed using limits and classified into horizontal, vertical
and oblique asymptotes depending on its orientation with respect to the X-axis.
Horizontal asymptotes are horizontal lines that the graph of the function approaches as x
tends to +∞ or −∞. As the name indicate they are parallel to the X-axis. Vertical
asymptotes are vertical lines (perpendicular to the X-axis) near which the function grows
without bound. Oblique asymptotes are diagonal lines so that the difference between the
curve and the line approaches 0 as x tends to +∞ or −∞. More general type of asymptotes
can be defined in this case.
[edit] Vertical asymptotes
The line x = a is a vertical asymptote of the graph of the function y = ƒ(x) if at least one
of the following statements is true:

1.

2.
The function ƒ(x) may or may not be defined at a, and its precise value at the point x = a
does not affect the asymptote. For example, for the function

has a limit of +∞ as x → 0+, ƒ(x) has the vertical asymptote x = 0, even though ƒ(0) = 5.
The graph of this function does intersect the vertical asymptote once, at (0,5). It is
impossible for the graph of a function to intersect a vertical asymptote (or a vertical line
in general) in more than one point.
[edit] Horizontal asymptotes

The graph of a function can have two horizontal asymptotes. An example of

such a function would be y = arctan(x).
Horizontal asymptotes are horizontal lines that the graph of the function approaches as x
→ ±∞. The horizontal line y = c is a horizontal asymptote of the function y = ƒ(x) if

or
In the first case, ƒ(x) has y = c as asymptote when x tends to −∞, and in the second that
ƒ(x) has y = c as an asymptote as x tends to +∞
For example the arctangent function satisfies

and

So the line y = −π/2 is a horizontal tangent for the arctangent when x tends to −∞, and y =
π/2 is a horizontal tangent for the arctangent when x tends to +∞.
Functions may lack horizontal asymptotes on either or both sides, or may have one
horizontal asymptote that is the same in both directions. For example, the function ƒ(x) =
1/(x2+1) has a horizontal asymptote at y = 0 when x tends both to −∞ and +∞ because,
respectively,

[edit] Oblique asymptotes

In the graph of , the y-axis (x = 0) and the line y= x are both

asymptotes.

When a linear asymptote is not parallel to the x- or y-axis, it is called an oblique

asymptote or slant asymptote. A function f(x) is asymptotic to the straight line y = mx + n
(m ≠ 0) if
In the first case the line y = mx + n is an oblique asymptote of ƒ(x) when x tends to +∞,
and in the second case the line y = mx + n is an oblique asymptote of ƒ(x) when x tends to
−∞
An example is ƒ(x) = x−1/x, which has the oblique asymptote y = x (m = 1, n = 0) as seen
in the limits

[edit] Elementary methods for identifying asymptotes

Asymptotes of many elementary functions can be found without the explicit use of limits
(although the derivations of such methods typically use limits).
[edit] General computation of oblique asymptotes for functions
The oblique asymptote, for the function f(x), will be given by the equation y=mx+n. The
value for m is computed first and is given by

where a is either or depending on the case being studied. It is good practice to

treat the two cases separately. If this limit doesn't exist then there is no oblique asymptote
in that direction.
Having m then the value for n can be computed by

where a should be the same value used before. If this limit fails to exist then there is no
oblique asymptote in that direction, even should limit defining m exist. Otherwise y = mx
+ n is the oblique asymptote of ƒ(x) as x tends to a.
For example, the function ƒ(x) = (2x2 + 3x + 1)/x has
 and then

so that y = 2x + 3 is the asymptote of ƒ(x) when x tends to +∞. The function ƒ(x) = ln x
has

and then

, which does not exist.

So y = ln x does not have an asymptote when x tends to +∞.

[edit] Asymptotes for rational functions
A rational function has at most one horizontal asymptote or oblique (slant) asymptote,
and possibly many vertical asymptotes.
The degree of the numerator and degree of the denominator determine whether or not
there are any horizontal or oblique asymptotes. The cases are tabulated below, where
deg(numerator) is the degree of the numerator, and deg(denominator) is the degree of the
denominator.
Table listing the cases of horizontal and oblique asymptotes for rational
functions

deg(numerator) −
asymptotes example asymptote
deg(denominator)

<0 y=0

y = the ratio of leading

=0
coefficients

y = the quotient, in the long

=1
division of the fraction

>1 none
The vertical asymptotes occur only when the denominator is zero (If both the numerator
and denominator are zero, the multiplicities of the zero are compared). For example, the
following function has vertical asymptotes at x = 0, and x = 1, but not at x = 2.

[edit] Oblique asymptotes of rational functions

f(x) = (x2 + x + 1) / (x + 1). Red: the asymptote

Black: the graph of
y = x. Green: difference between the graph and its asymptote for x =
1,2,3,4,5,6
When the numerator of a rational function has degree exactly one greater than the
denominator, the function has an oblique (slant) asymptote. The asymptote is the
polynomial term after dividing the numerator and denominator. This phenomenon occurs
because when dividing the fraction, there will be a linear term, and a remainder. For
example, consider the function

shown to the right. As the value of x increases, f approaches the asymptote y = x. This is
because the other term, y = 1/(x+1) becomes smaller.
If the degree of the numerator is more than 1 larger than the degree of the denominator,
and the denominator does not divide the numerator, there will be a nonzero remainder
that goes to zero as x increases, but the quotient will not be linear, and the function does
not have an oblique asymptote.
[edit] Transformations of known functions
If a known function has an asymptote (such as y=0 for f(x)=ex), then the translations of it
also have an asymptote.
 • If x=a is a vertical asymptote of f(x), then x=a+h is a vertical
asymptote of f(x-h)+k
• If y=c is a horizontal asymptote of f(x), then y=c+k is a horizontal
asymptote of f(x-h)+k
If a known function has an asymptote, then the scaling of the function also have an
asymptote.
• If y=ax+b is an asymptote of f(x), then y=cax+cb is an asymptote of
cf(x)
For example, f(x)=ex-1+2 has horizontal asymptote y=0+2=2, and no vertical or oblique
asymptotes.
[edit] General definition

(sec(t), cosec(t)), or x2 + y2 = (xy)2, with 2 horizontal and 2 vertical

asymptotes.

Let A : (a,b) → R2 be a parametric plane curve, in coordinates A(t) = (x(t),y(t)). Suppose

that the curve tends to infinity, that is:

A line ℓ is an asymptote of A if the distance from the point A(t) to ℓ tends to zero as
t → b.[8]
For example, the upper right branch of the curve y = 1/x can be defined parametrically as
x = t, y = 1/t (where t>0). First, x → ∞ as t → ∞ and the distance from the curve to the x-
axis is 1/t which approaches 0 as t → ∞. Therefore the x-axis is an asymptote of the
curve. Also, y → ∞ as t → 0 from the right, and the distance between the curve and the y-
axis is t which approaches 0 as t → 0. So the y-axis is also an asymptote. A similar
argument shows that the lower left branch of the curve also has the same two lines as
asymptotes.
Although the definition here uses a parameterization of the curve, the notion of asymptote
does not depend on the parameterization. In fact, if the equation of the line is ax + by +
c = 0 then the distance from the point A(t) = (x(t),y(t)) to the line is given by
if γ(t) is a change of parameterization then the distance becomes

which tends to zero simultaneously as the previous expression.

An important case is when the curve is the graph of a real function (a function of one real
variable and returning real values). The graph of the function y = ƒ(x) is the set of points
of the plane with coordinates (x,ƒ(x)). For this, a parameterization is

This parameterization is to be considered over the open intervals (a,b), where a can be
−∞ and b can be +∞.
An asymptote can be either vertical or non-vertical (oblique or horizontal). In the first
case its equation is x = c, for some real number c. The non-vertical case has equation y =
mx + n, where m and n are real numbers. All three types of asymptotes can be present at
the same time in specific examples. Unlike asymptotes for curves that are graphs of
functions, a general curve may have more than two non-vertical asymptotes, and may
cross its vertical asymptotes more than once.
[edit] Curvilinear asymptotes

x2+2x+3 is a parabolic asymptote to (x3+2x2+3x+4)/x

Let A : (a,b) → R2 be a parametric plane curve, in coordinates A(t) = (x(t),y(t)), and B be

another (unparameterized) curve. Suppose, as before, that the curve A tends to infinity.
The curve B is a curvilinear asymptote of A if the shortest of the distance from the point
A(t) to a point on B tends to zero as t → b. Sometimes B is simply referred to as an
asymptote of A, when there is no risk of confusion with linear asymptotes.[9]
For example, the function
has a curvilinear asymptote y = x2 + 2x + 3, which is known as a parabolic asymptote
because it is a parabola rather than a straight line.[10]
[edit] Asymptotes and curve tracing
The notion of asymptote is related to procedures of curve tracing. An asymptote serves as
a guide line that serves to show the behavior of the curve towards infinity.[11] In order to
get better approximations of the curve, asymptotes that are general curves have also been
used [12] although the term asymptotic curve seems to be preferred [13].
[edit] Algebraic curves

A cubic curve, the folium of Descartes (solid) with a single real asymptote
(dashed).

The asymptotes of an algebraic curve in the affine plane are the lines that are tangent to
the projectivized curve through a point at infinity. Asymptotes are often considered only
for real curves,[14] although they also make sense when defined in this way for curves
over an arbitrary field.[15]
A plane curve of degree n intersects its asymptote at most at n−2 other points.
Generically, by Bezout's theorem, a curve will intersect its asymptote at exactly this
number of other points, as the intersection at infinity is of multiplicity two. For a conic,
there are a pair of lines that do not intersect the conic at any complex point: these are the
two asymptotes of the conic.
A plane algebraic curve is defined by an equation of the form P(x,y) = 0 where P is a
polynomial of degree n
where Pk is homogeneous of degree k. Vanishing of the linear factors of the highest
degree term Pn defines the asymptotes of the curve: if Pn(x,y) = (ax − by) Qn−1(x,y), then
the line
ax − by = t0
is an asymptote, where t0 is chosen so that the curve and line meet at infinity. Over the
complex numbers, Pn splits into linear factors, each of which defines an asymptote.
However, over the reals, not only may Pn fail to split, but also if a linear factor has
multiplicity greater than one, the resulting asymptote may be entirely spurious. For
example, the curve x4 + y2 + 1 = 0 has no real points in the finite plane, but its highest
order term gives the asymptote x = 0 with multiplicity 4.
[edit] Other uses of the term
The hyperbolas

have asymptotes

The equation for the union of these two lines is

Similarly, the hyperboloids

are said to have the asymptotic cone[16][17]

The distance between the hyperboloid and cone approaches 0 as the distance from the
origin approaches infinity.
[edit] See also
• Asymptotic analysis
• Asymptotic curve
 • Big O notation

[edit] References
1. ^ "Asymptotes" by Louis A. Talman
2. ^ Williamson, Benjamin (1899), "Asymptotes", An elementary treatise
on the differential calculus, http://books.google.com/?
id=znsXAAAAYAAJ&pg=241
3. ^ Nunemacher, Jeffrey (1999), "Asymptotes, Cubic Curves, and the
Projective Plane", Mathematics Magazine 72 (3): 183–192,
doi:10.2307/2690881, http://www.jstor.org/stable/2690881
4. ^ Oxford English Dictionary, second edition, 1989.
5. ^ D.E. Smith, History of Mathematics, vol 2 Dover (1958) p. 318
6. ^ Apostol, Tom M. (1967), Calculus, Vol. 1: One-Variable Calculus with
an Introduction to Linear Algebra (2nd ed.), New York: John Wiley &
Sons, ISBN 978-0-471-00005-1 , §4.18.
7. ^ Reference for section: "Asymptote" The Penny Cyclopædia vol. 2,
The Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge (1841) Charles
Knight and Co., London p. 541
8. ^ Pogorelov, A. V. (1959), Differential geometry, Translated from the
first Russian ed. by L. F. Boron, Groningen: P. Noordhoff N. V.,
MR0114163 , §8.
9. ^ Fowler, R. H. (1920), The elementary differential geometry of plane
curves, Cambridge, University Press, ISBN 0486442772,
http://www.archive.org/details/elementarydiffer00fowlrich , p. 89ff.
10.^ William Nicholson, The British enciclopaedia, or dictionary of arts
and sciences; comprising an accurate and popular view of the present
improved state of human knowledge, Vol. 5, 1809
11.^ Frost, P. An elementary treatise on curve tracing (1918) online
12.^ Fowler, R. H. The elementary differential geometry of plane curves
Cambridge, University Press, 1920, pp 89ff.(online at archive.org)
13.^ Frost, P. An elementary treatise on curve tracing, 1918, page 5
14.^ Coolidge, Julian Lowell (1959), A treatise on algebraic plane curves,
New York: Dover Publications, MR0120551, ISBN 0486495760 , pp. 40–
44.
15.^ Kunz, Ernst (2005), Introduction to plane algebraic curves, Boston,
MA: Birkhäuser Boston, MR2156630, ISBN 978-0-8176-4381-2; 978-0-
8176-4381-2 , p. 121.
16.^ L.P. Siceloff, G. Wentworth, D.E. Smith Analytic geometry (1922) p.
271
17.^ P. Frost Solid geometry (1875) This has a more general treatment of
asymptotic surfaces.
 • Kuptsov, L.P. (2001), "Asymptote", in Hazewinkel, Michiel,
Encyclopaedia of Mathematics, Springer, ISBN 978-1556080104,
http://eom.springer.de/A/a013610.htm

[edit] External links

• Asymptote on PlanetMath
• Hyperboloid and Asymptotic Cone, string surface model made by Fabre
de Lagrange of Paris in 1872
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asymptote"

Categories: Mathematical analysis | Analytic geometry

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Here are some examples of rational functions:

• g(x) = (x2 + 1) / (x - 1)
• h(x) = (2x + 1) / (x + 3)
The rational functions to explored in this tutorial are of the form

f(x) = (ax+b)/(cx + d)
where a, b, c and d are parameters that may be changed, using sliders, to understand
their effects on the properties of the graphs of rational functions defined above.

Example: Find the domain of each function given below.

a. g(x) = (x - 1) / (x - 2)
b. h(x) = (x + 2) / x
Solution
a. For function g to be defined, the denominator x - 2 must be different from zero or
x not equal to 2. Hence the domain of g is given by
(-infinity , 2)U(2,+infinity).

b. For function h to be defined, the denominator x must be different from zero or x

not equal to 0. Hence the domain of h is given by
(-infinity , 0)U(0,+infinity).
Interactive Tutorial
Your browser is completely ignoring the <APPLET> tag!
1. Click on the button "click here to start", above, to start the applet and maximize
the window obtained.
2. Set a to 1, b to -1, c to 1 and d to -2 in order to define function g given in part a)
of the above example. Check that the graph is discontinuous at x = 2 (no graph
at x = 2).
3. Set a to 1, b to 2, c to 1 and d to 0 in order to define function h given in part b) of
the above example. Check that the graph is discontinuous at x = 0 (no graph at x
= 0).

Holes in the Graphs of Rational Functions

What if the zeros of the numerator and the denominator of the rational function are
equal?
Example
f(x) = (2x + 2) / (x + 1)
= 2(x + 1) / (x + 1)
= 2 , for x not equal to -1.

The graph of function f is a horizontal line with a hole (function not defined) at x = -1.