Gemstones and Earth history:

A Gondwana perspective

M. Santosh

Division of Interdisciplinary Science, Faculty of Science, Kochi University, Akebono-cho

2-5-1, Kochi 780-8520, Japan

Tel. and Fax: +81-88-844-8278. E-mail: santosh@cc.kochi-u.ac.jp;

msantosh.gr@gmail.com

Abstract

The Solid Earth can be considered to comprise a plate tectonics domain with broadly
horizontal motion in the upper mantle, plume tectonics dominated by vertical
movements in the lower mantle region and an ‘anti-plate tectonics’ zone characterized
by horizontal movements at the bottom of the mantle. Large plumes rising from the
core-mantle boundary act as pipes connecting the core to the surface, and play an
important role in material transfer within the Solid Earth. The history of evolution of our
planet witnessed the assembly of continental blocks within large land masses called
supercontinents at different periods. The formation of mineral resources, including
various types of gemstones, is broadly related to the assembly, evolution and break-up
of supercontinents and associated thermal events. Among the supercontinents in Earth
history, the Gondwana assembly at around 540 million years ago comprises continental
fragments which are the treasure chests of a variety of mineral deposits including
gemstones. A typical example is southern India, which formed the central piece of
Gondwana, where gemstone belts provide marker belts for continental correlations. The
Karur-Kangayam belt and the southern Kerala belt host a variety of precious and semi-
precious stones including ruby, sapphire, emerald, aquamarine, chrysoberyl,
kornerupine, topaz, zircon, garnet, tourmaline, amethyst, among others. The
gemstones are hosted by both metamorphic rocks as well as magmatic and related
pegmatitic/hydrothermal phases. Understanding the formation of these belts provide
valuable insights into the tectonics of the region and correlation with global processes.
Gemstones have played an important role in the history of human society. Public
awareness programmes on gemstones would not only aid in promoting gem industry,
but would also help in a proper understanding of Earth history. This would also be a
befitting appreciation of Mother Nature’s fascinating expressions through precious and
semi-precious stones meticulously crafted at different times over the 4.6 billion year
history of the Earth.

Key words: Gemstones, Earth history, supercontinents, Gondwana, southern India.

1. Introduction

The outer layer of the Earth is like a cracked egg shell and is constituted of a number of
lithospheric plates. These plates are in constant motion, moving away from each other,
sliding past or colliding. The horizontal motion of the lithospheric plates on the surface
of the Earth is explained by the concept of plate tectonics and contributes to the
generation of new crust at spreading centers which is transported and eventually
destroyed at subduction zones (Fig. 1). The subduction zones are also production
centers where hydrous melting generates arc magmas which rise up and build the arc
crust above. In convergent zones, the subducting plate moves vertically down like a
curtain-like sheet until it reaches the mantle transition zone between 410 to 660 km
depth where the material accumulates as ‘subducted slabs’ (Fig. 2). Some, but not all,
of the subducted slabs may descend vertically as blobs, reaching the core-mantle
boundary (Zhao, 2004; Maruyama et al., 2007, and references therein) where they
accumulate as ‘slab graveyards’. This material provides a potential trigger as well as the
essential fuel for the generation of superplumes either through heating from the core, or
radioactive heat generated from enriched basaltic slab remnants, or both. Superplumes
rise from the core-mantle boundary to the uppermost mantle, penetrating the mantle
transition zone, eventually giving rise to hot spots. Thus plumes act as pipes connecting
the core to the surface, and play an important role in material transfer within the Solid
Earth (Santosh et al., 2009a) (Fig. 3). In the present day Earth, two hot upwellings
corresponding to superplumes are identified, the Pacific and African, and one cold
downwelling (e.g., Maruyama et al., 2007).

The subducted slab material, inferred from seismic tomography, moves horizontally at
the core-mantle boundary. The implication of horizontal movement at the base of the
mantle has been referred to as “anti-plate tectonics”, in many respects analogous to
lithospheric plate tectonic processes operating in near-surface regions. Accordingly,
through time, it is conjectured that continents gradually develop at or close to the outer
earth surface while concomitant ‘anti-continents’ would be generated at the core-mantle
boundary (Maruyama et al., 2007). Thus, geodynamic processes can be viewed on a
whole as a combination of ‘plate-’, ‘plume-‘, and ‘anti-plate-’ tectonics (Fig. 4). In other
words, melts and fluids between upper- and lower-most levels of the mantle may play a
profound role in the process of global material circulation. Thus, the Solid Earth can be
considered to comprise a plate tectonics domain with broadly horizontal motion in the
upper mantle, plume tectonics dominated by vertical movements in the lower mantle
region and an ‘anti-plate tectonics’ zone characterized by horizontal movements at the
bottom of the mantle (Maruyama et al., 2007; Santosh et al., 2009a). Recent models
propose that a third layer of continental crust might have accumulated over time on the
mantle transition zone, predominated by subducted granitic crust.

In the early 2 billion year history of the Earth, there were no large continents and the
surface of our planet was dominated by an oceanic realm with island arcs. Arc-arc
collision and formation of composite arcs led to the development of embryonic
continents which subsequently amalgamated to form larger continental masses (Fig. 5)
(Santosh et al., 2009b). The continental fragments joined together to form
megacontinents and these in turn were welded together into supercontinents.
Supercontinents are large landmasses formed by the convergence of multiple
continental fragments carrying ancient cratons, together with accreted terranes. The
first coherent supercontinent is thought to have been assembled by around 2.0 Ga,
although it was much smaller in size as compared to that of some of the younger
supercontinents. The configuration of supercontinents and pseudo-supercontinents
which shaped the globe during various periods in Earth history as often found in
literature are the hypothetical assembly Ur (3.0 Ga), Kenorland (2.7-25. Ga), Columbia
(1.8-1.9 Ga), Rodinia (1.1 Ga), Gondwana (0.54 Ga) and Pangea (0.25 Ga) (e.g.,
Rogers and Santosh, 2004 and references therein; Santosh et al., 2009b). A future
supercontinent Amasia is speculated to form at around 250 million years from now.
Supercontinents once assembled are not stable, because heating beneath the large
land mass, either through radiogenic input (thermal blanket effect) or through the
impingement of superplumes, eventually breaks them apart, and the crustal fragments
move away to cooler regions on the globe to reassemble into newer configurations.

The dynamics of supercontinents also impact the origin and extinction of life as well as
surface environmental changes. Large scale flow of material and energy through mantle
downwelling and upwelling associated with supercontinent assembly and breakup is
thought to affect the Earth’s dynamo which would lead to catastrophic environmental
changes, sometimes even triggering mass extinction of life forms. When a rising plume
impinges the base of a supercontinent, the resultant continental rifting, formation of large
igneous provinces and volcanic emissions might lead to the initiation of a plume winter,
the aftermath of which would be mass extinction and long term oceanic anoxia.
Supercontinent tectonics in relation to mantle dynamics thus provides a key to evaluate
the history of evolution and destruction of the continental crust, to understand the history
of life, and to trace the major surface environmental changes of our planet (Santosh,
2010).

Supercontinent formation and destruction and associated geodynamic processes have

been fundamental to the generation of the various types of mineral deposits in our planet,
including the formation of precious and semi-precious stones. As mentioned above, the
material transfer on a whole-earth scale controls these factors, with elements transported
from the core to the surface through plumes and recycled back through plate tectonics.
Magmatism, metamorphism and fluid processes associated with supercontinent
dynamics critically control the formation of mineral resources. In this contribution, I
provide an overview of the gemstone occurrences in one of the principal crustal
fragments that was part of the supercontinent Gondwana and discuss the implications in
relation to geodynamics. This contribution is a partial summary of my inaugural address
delivered at the Annual Meeting of the Indian Gemmological Society held in Munnar
(Kerala) during 2009, and does not claim to be a comprehensive review.

2. Gemstones in relation to tectonic setting

Rocks are aggregates of minerals and the formation conditions and stability of the
mineral assemblages in different rock types are dictated by the tectonic environment of
their genesis. The primary growth of minerals occurs from melts and/or fluids associated
with magmatic, metamorphic and sometimes even sedimentary environments. The
nature of magma/melt, the compositional characteristics of the associated fluids, the
depth of formation (which essentially translates into pressure-temperature conditions),
among other parameters, dictate the type of mineral assemblage. The duration of
crystallization is also an important factor, particularly In the case of large and well-formed
crystals. Shorter duration or intermittent tectonic disturbances result in smaller grain size
or malformation. Whereas diamonds form in deep-seated kimberlitic magmas generated
in the mantle, minerals like emerald (a variety of beryl), and amethyst form in shallow
levels from hydrothermal fluids emanating from the residual stage of crustal magmas or
circulating fluids in the upper crust.

We now briefly consider the gemstone ‘factories’ of the dynamic Earth from a layman’s
point of view. Minerals like agate, amethyst, opal, turquoise, and malachite/azurite
precipitate from percolating water charged with different types of elements in the near-
surface environment. If this water emanates from a magma emplaced at depth, then it
would have higher temperatures and would be concentrated with various elements that
are scavenged from the residual magma leading to a variety of rich hydrothermal
deposits including minerals like beryl (emerald, aquamarine), tourmaline, chrysoberyl,
among others. At much deeper levels, within the cooling magma chambers, a variety of
high temperature minerals are produced such as for example, zircon and topaz. Further
inside the bowels of the earth in the deep mantle, diamonds crystallize in rare magmas
like kimberlites and lamproites which form by the partial melting of the upper mantle. The
gas expansion within these magmas propels them to rise upward at rates of 10 to 30 km
per hour, taking just 4 to 15 hours to reach from mantle to the surface.

When magmatic rocks and sedimentary rocks are subjected to metamorphism, a variety
of minerals are formed, a typical example being garnet. Some of the other popular
minerals of gemstone family such as sapphire and ruby (corundum), jadeite, sillimanite-
kyanite, iolite (cordierite), kornerupine etc. are also formed in metamorphic rocks.
Depending on the tectonic setting and pressure-temperature conditions of
metamorphism, the mineral assemblages vary widely to the extent that even diamonds
(mostly micro-diamonds) can also crystallize in metamorphic rocks, such as in the case
of eclogites generated by ultrahigh-pressure metamorphism involving deep subduction of
crustal materials in major continent-continent collision zones.

In gem industry, alluvial stones carry prominent importance because they are easily
recoverable and also due to their better quality, devoid of cracks and other abnormalities
as they are naturally sorted with only the better lot surviving the long fluvial transport
before deposition. These minerals preserve a long history of their formation in
magmatic/metamorphic environment prior to their departure from the source through
weathering of the host rocks and transport in fluvial medium and final accumulation within
placer deposits. The mechanisms of formation of placer deposits are linked to
geomorphologic parameters which in turn are ultimately related to regional tectonics.
A cartoon illustration of the different tectonic environments of formation of a few popular
gemstones is shown in Fig. 6.

3. The Gondwana gemstone treasury

Among the various supercontinents that shaped the surface or our globe from time to
time, the formation of the Gondwana supercontinent during the Late Neproterozoic-
Cambrian (ca. 540 Ma) marks a turning point in the history of the Earth as it coincides
with major environmental changes including the first appearance of the modern
(metazoan) life forms. The Gondwana supercontinent comprises a large assembly of
continental masses including India, Antarctica, Australia, Madagascar, Sri Lanka, South
Africa and South America, and formed the southern half of Pangea (Rogers and
Santosh, 2004, and references therein; Meert and Lieberman, 2008) (Fig. 7). It was later
rifted and fragmented, firstly by the eastward rifting of Africa at 160 Ma to separate from
North America, followed by the Cretaceous opening in the central and southern Atlantic,
together with the separation of India at 120-100 Ma, and finally Australia at 60 Ma. India
moved rapidly northward and collided against Asia at 50 Ma, giving rise to the mighty
Himalayan Mountain Belt.

The Gondwana crustal fragments are our planet’s treasure chests of a variety of
economic mineralization and gemstone deposits. Gold, base metals, diamond, iron,
manganese, iron-ores, tin-tungsten, molybdenum, tantalum-niobium, platinum-group
metals, uranium and graphite are among the variety of economic resources in these
regions. High quality gemstones are found in India, Madagascar, Sri Lanka, Brazil and
East Africa including diamond, ruby, sapphire, emerald, aquamarine, chrysoberyl, zircon
garnet, amethyst, tourmaline and a host of other semi-precious minerals.
4. Southern India as a fragment of Gondwana

The Indian Peninsula comprises two major tectonic units: the South India and the North
India crustal blocks which were welded along the Central India Tectonic Zone (the
Narmada-Tapti River course) during the Paleo-Mesoproterozoic times. Each of these
major units incorporate Archean cratons (such as Dharwar, Singhbhum, Bastar and
Bundelkhand) and surrounding younger belts (such as the Southern Granulite Terrain,
the Eastern Ghats Belt, the Aravalli-Delhi belt etc.). The different units belonged to
different supercontinents in the past including the earliest supercontinent Ur at 3.0 Ga,
Columbia at 1.9 Ga, Rodinia at 1.0 Ga and Gondwana at ca. 0.54 Ga. A variety of
mineralization including gemstones occurs in the different blocks associated with
magmatic and metamorphic processes attending various thermal regimes during different
periods in Earth history. In this contribution, I will focus attention on the Gondwana-
related gem mineralization in southern India.

Southern India occupies a central position in the Late Neoproterozoic-Cambrian

Gondwana supercontinent assembly. Southern India comprises two major tectonic units:
the Archean Dharwar Craton to the north and the Proterozoic granulite blocks to the
south. The Proterozoic mosaic of southern India comprises a collage of crustal blocks
dissected by Late Neoproterozoic-Cambrian crust-scale shear/suture zones (Fig. 8).
Among these, the Palghat-Cauvery Suture Zone (PCSZ) has been identified as the trace
of the Cambrian suture representing Mozambique Ocean closure during the final phase
of amalgamation of the Gondwana supercontinent.

In a recent plate tectonic model, Santosh et al. (2009c) proposed the various stages
associated with the final assembly of southern India within Gondwana (Fig. 9). The early
part of the cycle witnessed a continental rifting stage and formation of the Mozambique
Ocean basin probably at around 900-800 million years ago which extended all the way from
East Africa through Madagascar, India and Sri Lanka into East Antarctica. The charnockite
massifs and associated granitoid suites covering a width of over 200 km in the Madurai
Block to the south Palghat-Cauvery Suture Zone in southern India, and their extension into
adjacent continental fragments within Gondwana suggest that a large ocean must have been
present, perhaps similar to the present day Indian Ocean, and that these arc massifs were
generated by the southward subduction of an oceanic crust. The closure of the Mozambique
Ocean was marked by the collision of the Archean Dharwar craton in to the north to create a
Himalayan-type Cambrian orogenic belt, the trace of which is the Palghat-Cauvery Suture
Zone, accompanied by regional high grade metamorphism. The final stage is marked by
post-orogenic extension and emplacement of minor late stage intrusive plutons widely
occurring in various blocks and shear/suture zones. Post-collision Barrovian hydration is
also widely noticed, particularly in the development of lower grade assemblages dominated
by hydrous minerals. A composite schematic illustration proposed by Santosh et al. (2009c)
for the final amalgamation and generation of a Cambrian “Himalaya” in southern India is
shown in Fig. 10. This model envisages two ocean closures, one along the Palghat-Cauvery
Suture Zone and the other along the Achankovil Suture Zone further south during the final
assembly of southern India within Gondwana.

Within various domains in the Palghat-Cauvery Suture Zone, high pressure and ultra-high
temperature granulite facies rocks occur with diagnostic mineral assemblages of extreme
metamorphism (e.g., Shimpo et al., 2006; Santosh et al., 2010; Nishimiya et al., 2010) (Fig.
11). Recently, Santosh and Kusky (2010) proposed a ridge subduction model to explain the
paired high pressure and ultrahigh-temperature metamorphic rocks commonly occurring
within the Palghat-Cauvery Suture Zone (Fig. 12). The development of a wide accretionary
belt with typical features of ocean plate stratigraphy associated with the closure of the
Mozambique Ocean in the late Neoproterozoic has been recently recorded from this zone
(Santosh et al., 2009c). The nature and distribution of the rock types in this zone with
charnockites and granites at the higher crustal level followed by mafic/ultramafic rocks and
HP-UHT paired sequences towards the deeper level broadly corresponding with the
southward polarity of ridge subduction and possible slab window opening. Thus, one of the
possible scenarios for the HP-UHT conditions in a CO2-dominated fluid regime recorded from
these rocks would be a model where the slab window was placed against a hot
asthenosphere.

5. The gemstone province in southern India

The Karur-Kangayam gemstone belt in Tamil Nadu, southern India is spread over an
area of approximately 70 x 70 sq. km and is located at the southern margin of the
Palghat-Cauvery Suture Zone. The gemstone belt occurs within a system of shear
zones passing through Karur, Dharapuram,Oddanchathram and Palani areas. The belt
is located at a critical junction of contrasting crustal blocks, and within a major suture
zone where ocean closure, deep subduction, accretion and continental collision
occurred accompanied by magmatism, metamsomatism and high grade metamorphism.

The varied gemstone mineralization in this belt are related to different lithologic
horizons, and apparently belong to different genetic environments, although their
formation can be linked to processes accompanying the latest prominent thermal event
in the region associated with the final amalgamation of the Gondwana supercontinent.
Geochronological data (summarized in Santosh et al., 2009c) suggest ca. 540-520 Ma
ages.

Santosh and Collins (2003) summarized the general features of the gemstone
occurrences in the Karur-Kangayam belt. A number of semi-precious stones occur in
this belt associated with various lithologies (Fig. 13) These include star ruby and
sapphire varieties of corundum together with cordierite of iolite type (Lachmanapatti,
Malapatti and Kiranur), yellow topaz (Dindigul), aquamarine and emerald varieties of
beryl (Manikapuram), alexandrite (Chinnadharapuram), bronzite with cat’s eye
(Pulampatty), apatite (Edapadi), spinel (Manavadi, Kunjampalayam), kornerupine with
cat’s eye (Edappadi, Ponnambalam), black tourmaline (Ottani), labradorite
(Oddanchathram), amethyst (Kadavur) and garnet (Oddanchathram), among others.
At the Lachmanapatti ruby mine, corundum crystals of various sizes ranging up to 5 cm
occur. Large crystals of deep purple cordierite (iolite) occur in intimate association with
corundum. Cordierite also occurs as symplectites in association with needle-like crystals
of sapphirine (Tsunogae and Santosh, 2003). Symplectitic moats of cordierite form
corona around corundum. Hercynite spinel occurs in between the sapphirine-cordierite
symplectite and moats of cordierite. Coarse sapphirine-corundum-cordierite-biotite
assemblages also occur in this locality. At Malapatty, another cordierite (iolite) and
corundum (sapphire) mine, tiny bluish sapphirine crystals occur enclosed within
plagioclase (Tsunogae and Santosh, 2003). Corundum here occurs as coarse crystals
surrounded by plagioclase, with no direct contact with sapphirine. Corundum-bearing
samples in Malapatty also contain gedrite and biotite. Star-ruby variety of corundum
also occurs in other localities in the Karur-Kangayam belt, including Landakottai and
Tantoni. An exclusive variety of a blend of red ruby and blue sapphire within single
crystals occur at Sevitturangampatti, a location from where Shimpo et al. (2006)
reported high pressure and ultrahigh-temperature metamorphic conditions derived from
garnet and corundum bearing rocks.

Coarse cordierite crystals at Lachmanapatty and Kiranur are associated with feldspar of
sunstone variety. The feldspars contain numerous oriented and thin, elongate inclusions
of brown biotite which impart bright reddish brown glitter in reflected light. Composite
grains of iolite and sunstone from these localities are used to make single stones with
coupled deep blue and orange-brown hues. The moonstone variety of feldspar in the
Karur-Kangayam belt shows various hues including pearly white, grey, bamboo green,
light brownish pink and black. The gem varieties are characterized by a milky white
sheen that moves across the crystal when rotated against the light, and is identical to
the chatoyancy observed in cat’s eye chrysoberyls from southern Kerala (see Menon et
al., 1994). A similar chatoyancy effect is also shown by some varieties of other semi-
precious stones from Karur-Kangayam belt such as bytownite, kornerupine and spinel.
Some of the exclusive varieties of feldspar with multiple sheen are locally termed as
rainbow stones.
Aquamarine variety of beryl from Karur-Kangayam belt occurs in various sizes, and
some crystals are up to a few centimetres in length. Black tourmaline, amethyst and
crystal quartz also occur commonly. Another major attraction of this gem belt is the
multiple variety of rutile-bearing quartz and amethyst. The elongated needles of rutile,
often black or sometimes in golden hue associated with hematite, offer spectacular
samples for collectors.

Geologically, the different semi-precious stones in the Karur- Kangayam belt are related
to different lithologies and were derived by different processes in a wide range of
pressure-temperature-fluid conditions. The semi-precious varieties of corundum (star
ruby and sapphire), spinel and kornerupine are related to metamorphic processes, and
are seen within aluminous metasedimentary horizons occurring as thin slivers indise
host orthogniesses. For example, at Lachmanapatty, a 3 m thick garnet and
phlogopite/biotite-bearing metasedimentary layer is intercalated within biotite and
hornblende bearing orthogneisses. A coarse pegmatitic zone rich in feldspar and bluish
cordierite occurs between the orthogniess and metasedimentary layer. The
orthogniesses in the area contain deformed and boudinaged mafic enclaves of various
dimensions ranging from centimeter to decimeter scale. The corundum-bearing zone
occurs metasedimentary unit. At Malapatty, corundum and cordierite-bearing
amphibole-rich gneisses are intruded by N-S striking coarse pegmatite which also
contains cordierite. The sunstone variety of feldspar occurs in intimate association with
iolite variety of cordierite within pegmatites. These pegmatites are often associated with
metasedimentary layers carrying corundum. The ruby iolite-sunstone associations at
Lachmanapatti and Kiranur are typical examples. On the other hand, the various
varieties of moonstones, such as those mined near Onamparai, 15 km west of
Kangayam, occur within thick pegmatitic dykes almost entirely composed of feldspar
and minor quartz, in the absence of cordierite and corundum. Evidently, the moonstone
variety of feldspar comes from late residual phase of granitic magmas, the evidence for
which is abundant in the area, such as the pink granite of Vattamali near Karur.
Pegmatite emplacement and related hydrothermal activity also gave rise to various
other semi-precious minerals in the area including gem variety of beryl (aquamarine),
topaz, tourmaline, amethyst and crystal quartz.

Apart from the gemstones, the zones described are also of fundamental importance to
petrologists as they often associate a variety of diagnostic indicator minerals for
extreme metamorphic conditions. For example, many of the Mg-Al granulite layers in
these zones associate the blue mineral sapphirine, often in direct association with
quartz, suggesting metamorphic temperatures in excess of 1000 oC (e.g. Nishimiya et
al., 2010). Similarly, low Zn spinel in association with quartz is also found in some
locations suggesting extreme metamorphic temperatures. A variety of other associated
minerals including garnet, gedrite, kyanite, sillimanite, cordierite, feldspars and others
have aided petrologists working in this region to reconstruct the metamorphic and
tectonic history. In addition, the finding of high pressure assemblages within mafic
granulites have aided in a better understanding of the subduction-collision tectonics in
this area.

6. Gemstone belts as marker beds for continental correlations

The Karur-Kangayam gemstone occurrences provide a key belt to investigate the

correlation between India and Madagascar within the Gondwana supercontinent
assembly. One of the key gemstones is ruby. Extensive new finds of gem-quality
corundum have been reported from the central-eastern coast and from the north-central
region of Madagascar. Both these localities lie along the Betsimisaraka suture and
therefore support correlation of the Betsimisaraka suture in Madagasacar with the
Palghat-Cauvery Suture Zone system in India. In Madagascar, several other sapphire
and ruby occurrences are also known. Gem variety of red corundum (ruby) from the
Ejeda-Fotadrevo area in southwestern Madagascar are associated with basic/
ultrabasic complexes of the Precambrian Vohibory unit metamorphosed to granulite
facies (Mercier et al., 1999) and have been correlated with similar occurrences in
Tanzania.
In a previous study, Menon et al. (1994) synthesized the occurrences and
characteristics of semi-precious stones in the chrysoberyl belt of southern Kerala.
Southern Kerala region in South India is among the historically important regions within
Gondwana fragments for gemstone exploration and exploitation, with recovery of a
variety of gemstones continuing for over a century. Among the important gemstones
found in this region are the peacock's eye (alexandrite) and the cat's eye (chrysoberyl).
Several semi-precious stones including translucent chrysoberyl, ruby, green beryl,
aquamarine, topaz, kornerupine, green and golden zircons, blue spinel, almandine and
pyrope garnets, blue and green apatites, feldspar (moonstone), smoky quartz, amethyst
and cordierite, among other minor varieties, have also been recovered from this region.
Menon et al. (2004) proposed a gemstone province in the East Gondwana assembly
compiling similar occurrences in southern Kerala, Sri Lanka and Madagascar. In
another study, Santosh et al. (2002) reported pink sapphire from the Achankovil Shear
Zone and Trivandrum Block in southern Kerala. The mineralization is sporadic and
associated with granulite facies aluminous supracrustals. The available radiometric age
of around 513 Ma for gem quality zircon associated with pink sapphire in the Melankode
locality confirms that the mineralization is of late Pan-African age. Pink sapphires have
been widely reported from a number of localities in southern Madagascar including
Betroka, Illakaka, Antranondambo and Ambossary. Sapphires of various hues also
occur in the Ratnapura gem district in the southwestern part of Sri Lanka. The pink
sapphire occurrences in southern Madagascar and southern Kerala provide strong
evidence for India-Madagascar-Sri Lanka juxtaposition in the Gondwana assembly with
the Ranotsara Shear Zone in southern Madagascar extending into the Achankovil
Shear Zone in southern India.

7. Need for public awareness

Gemstones are the flowers of Mother Earth crystallizing from magmas, melts and fluids.
Some of the minerals like zircons date back from the early history of earth, more than
4000 million years ago. With their rarity, durability and beauty, gem stones have figured
in various phases of the cultural history of human society. However, precious and semi-
precious stones, apart from their attraction as ornamental stones, have not been
adequately recognized for their geologic complexity and cultural heritage among the
common public, particularly in developing countries. The recovery and marketing of
gemstones is often riddled with problems and local issues including regulations imposed
by administrative authorities. Gems provide a better alternative against the mad rush
for gold, with the ever-increasing demand for the yellow metal particularly in developing
countries. Mineral markets, gem clubs and gem hunting expeditions should be
organized to create public awareness which would open up immense possibilities for
development and growth of the gem industry in the coming years.

Acknowledgements

I would like to sincerely thank Dr. K.T. Ramachandran, Hon. Secretary of the
Gemmological Society of India, and the organizers of the 10 th IGS in Munnar, Kerala for
inviting me to inaugurate the ceremony and for asking me to deliver a lecture. I am
particularly thankful to Dr. Ramachandran for inviting this manuscript and for the
immense patience and patronage in waiting for it. I would like to thank my colleague
Mr. A.K. Salim and “Karur Babu” without whose help and assistance, I would not have
had the chance to study the gemstone belt of Karur-Kangayam area. I also express my
sincere thanks to many of my research collaborators, particularly Dr. T. Tsunogae
(Japan), with whom I carried out a number of research studies on the metamorphic
mineral assemblages in the gemstone belt of Karur and brought out several joint
research publications in the recent years. I had benefitted much from discussions as
well as joint publications with Prof. S. Maruyama (Japan) regarding Earth history and
mantle dynamics, the concepts from some of which are included in this manuscript.

References

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Figure captions

Fig. 1 Schematic illustration of divergent and convergent plate tectonics showing the
birth of oceanic plate at the mid oceanic ridge and its subduction at the trench. The
principal magma production factories are at the ridge and also in the subduction zone;
in the latter case hydrous partial melting of the subducting slab generates arc magmas.
MORB- Mid oceanic ridge basalt.

Fig. 2 P-wave tomography of the Western Pacific region showing slab graveyards (after
Zhao, 2004). The vertical cross-section is shown for a profile passing through northeast
China and central Japan. The velocity perturbation scale is shown at the bottom. The
flat-lying stagnant slabs in the mantle transition zone extends for over 2000 km. The low
velocity anomalies under the Pacific slab in the upper and topmost lower mantle, if
representing a compositional anomaly, might indicate subducted felsic material.

Fig. 3 (a) Cartoon speculating the fluid distribution from surface to the core of the Earth
(after Santosh et al., 2009a and references therein). Mid oceanic ridge basalt (MORB)
subducted at the trench sinks through the mantle transition zone and finally drops down
to the core-mantle boundary (CMB). The MORB components are then heated up by the
outer core leading to partial melting. The dense iron rich melts accumulate on the
bottom of the D” prime layer. The remaining restite MORB with dominant andesitic
composition rises upward to form superplume. The subducted slab from the trench is
hydrous, and is heated up by the surrounding mantle which releases the water in the
mantle wedge and enhances the viscosity. The origin of a superplume at the core-
mantle boundary is discussed in Maruyama et al. (2007). The vertically rising
superplume enters into the upper mantle, transforms to horizontal and branches out into
several hot spots. These hot spots cause the rifting of the continent, and deliver the
mantle fluid (mainly C-O-H-S) to the surface. Surface CO2 has been selectively
transported into the mantle in the Hadean to the Archean. After the Neoproterozoic,
surface water started to be transported into the mantle transition zones (410 to 660
km). For the major part of the Earth’s fluid history, the fluid transport was mostly one
way- from the outer core to the surface. The return flow of water is thought to have been
initiated probably after 750 Ma, and has not yet entered into the lower mantle. MOR-
Mid ocean ridge.
(b) Thermal structure of the Earth. (after Maruyama et al., 2007). The data indicate two
hot upwellings (Pacific and African superplume) and one cold downwelling (Asian cold
plume).

Fig. 4 Cartoon illustrating the process of material circulation on a whole-earth scale

controlled by plate, plume and anti-plate tectonics (after Maruyama et al., 2007;
Santosh et al., 2009a). The subducted slab material, as inferred from seismic
tomography, may be plausibly considered to reach the core-mantle boundary. This
recycled oceanic lithosphere is viewed as a potential trigger of, and contributor to, the
superplume rising from the core-mantle interface to the uppermost mantle, penetrating
the mantle transition zone and eventually giving rise to hot spots. Radioactive heat
generated in ‘enriched’ basaltic slab remnants, and the heat given off by post-perovskite
– perovskite phase transformation may contribute to generating small-scale plumes
which ultimately coalesce into a superplume (see Maruyama et al., 2007 for details).
The implication of horizontal movement at the base of the mantle has been referred to
as ‘anti-plate tectonics’, in many respects analogous to lithospheric plate tectonic
processes operating in near-surface regions. Accordingly, through time, it is conjectured
that continents gradually develop at or close to the outer earth surface while
concomitant ‘anti-continents’ would be generated at the CMB (Maruyama et al., 2007).
Also shown are tectosphere-bearing surface continents and water subduction into the
mantle boundary layer (mantle transition zone) where rising hydrous plumes are
predicted.

Fig. 5 A generalized cartoon to show subduction or collision-amalgamation of intra-

oceanic arcs (after Santosh et al., 2009b). Top figure shows vertical or orthogonal
collision of arcs with a cross section of subducting arc crust. B shows the parallel
collision of arcs to increase the continental crust effectively on the earth by collision-
accretion of continental crust. The buoyancy of the continental crust is a function of its
volume as discussed in the text. Orthogonal collision has a small cross section,
whereas parallel collision has a big cross section. The Archean is dominated by
tectospheric mantle domain, but in the Modern oceanic domain, there is no tectospheric
mantle, although the tectonic settings are relatively similar. In the continental region, the
tectospheric mantle and oceanic mantle are mixed now, one of the reasons that can
explain the Wilson cycle, because tectosphere plays a dominant role in driving the
Wilson cycle. The volume of continental volume is relatively too small; for example, a 15
km thin felsic upper curst is anchored by 200-300 km thick tectosphere. Therefore,
tectosphere behaves as a buoyant mass for continent dispersion and amalgamation.

Fig. 6 Cartoon illustration of two different types of geological settings of formation of

representative gem minerals. (a) Near-surface environment. (b) Magmatic and
pegmatitic/hydrothermal environment.

Fig. 7 The configuration of Gondwana supercontinent at ca. 540 Ma (after Rino et al.,
2008).

Fig. 8 Geological framework of southern India (after Santosh and Sajeev, 2006)
showing the Archean Craton in the north and the various Proterozoic granulite blocks
and the two major shear/suture zones in the south.

Fig. 9 Cartoon cross-sections illustrating the rifting stage and Pacific-stage to explain the
pre-collisional history of the southern Indian Gondwana fragment (after Santosh et al.,
2009c). Judging from the width of Pacific-type TTG belts, the Mozambique Ocean must have
been over 3000 km, similar to the present day Indian Ocean. Note the presence of
tectosphere under the Dharwar Craton and passive continental margin deposits which are
ultimately incorporated in collision with the evolved arc at 540 Ma, regionally
metamorphosed at mantle depth, and returned back to the surface. The birth of the
Mozambique Ocean is speculated to be between 1 billion to 750 million years ago. Bimodal
volcanics interlayered with clastics and impure platform carbonates with conformable
relationship must have prevailed in a sequence quite different from the accretionary complex
in the Pacific-type orogen.

Fig. 10 Cartoon illustration showing a composite plate tectonic model for southern India from
North (Archean Dharwar Craton) to South (Pacific-type orogen) with two major collisional
orogens in between (after Santosh et al., 2009c). The Palghat-Cauvery Suture Zone
represents the main suture developed through Mozambique Ocean closure. The cross
section also covers Achankovil Suture Zone and Trivandrum Block up to the Nagercoil Block
at the southern tip. The Madurai Block represents a wide magmatic arc in between. This
model envisages the two Cambrian “Himalayas” in southern India, one major belt along the
Palghat-Cauvery Suture Zone and another minor one along the Achankovil Suture Zone.

Fig. 11 Combined P-T diagram showing data from mineral phase equilibria and fluid
inclusions in high pressure granulites from the Palghat-Cauvery Suture Zone (after Santosh
et al., 2010). The ranges of isochores for the two major fluid inclusion categories (high
density and low density) are shown by shaded regions. The star denotes the peak P-T
conditions estimated for the Sittampundi eclogite. The decompression P-T path (thick broken
line with arrow) is also shown. The thick rectangular box represents the P-T conditions for
high pressure and ultrahigh-temperature granulites within the Palghat-Cauvery Suture Zone.
Fields of extreme crustal metamorphism (shaded regions) include ultrahigh-pressure,
ultrahigh-temperature, and very low temperature conditions. Abbreviations are UHP:
ultrahigh-pressure; HP- high-pressure; UHT: ultrahigh-temperature; VLT: very low
temperature; AM: amphibolite; Amp-EC: amphibolite–eclogite; BS: blueschist; EA: epidote
amphibolite; EC: eclogite; Ep-EC: epidote–eclogite; GR: granulite; GS: greenschist; HGR:
high-grade granulite; and Lw-EC: lawsonite–eclogite. The figure shows that the rocks in this
region have been subjected to extreme metamorphic conditions at high pressures and
extreme temperatures.
Fig. 12 Ridge subduction model to explain the paired HP-UHT metamorphic rocks within
the Palghat-Cauvery Suture Zone in the Cambrian Gondwana collisional suture of
southern India (after Santosh and Kusky, 2010). (a) Cartoon illustrating the pattern of
ridge subduction and slab window opening (after Bradley, 2003). (b) Part of the central
Gondwana assembly showing the trace of Late Neoproterozoic-Cambrian suture formed
by the closure of Mozambique Ocean. The location of the Palghat-Cauvery Suture Zone
(PCSZ) is also shown. (c) Cartoon illustrating the subduction-collision-accretion
tectonics along the PCSZ with a southward polarity of the subducting oceanic plate. The
major location of accretionary belts, dismembered ophiolite and exhumed HP-UHP
orogens are also shown. (d) Geological map of the PCSZ area showing the locations of
HP-UHT granulites. The proposed slab window is shown by thick dashed lines.

Fig. 13 Photographs of representative gemstones from the Karur-Kangayam belt of the

southern Indian Gondwana fragment. (a) Corundum (ruby) in association with garnet
and gedrite at Sevitturangampatti. (b) A large ruby crystal from the Lachmanapatti mine.
(c) and (d) Different varieties of moonstones and ‘rainbow stones’ from Kangayam belt.
(e) Diopsidite from Edappadi known in the local market as black cat’s eye. (f) Rutile-
bearing quartz and amethyst from Karur. (g) Beryl (including aquamarine variety) from
Karur. (h) Sunstones from Karur. (i) Ultrahigh-temperature metamorphic rock from
Sengal-Sakkarakkottai belt showing the association of sapphirine. (j) Garnet-kaynite-
corundum-sapphirine-gedrite-cordierite ultrahigh temperature metamorphic rock from
Panangad. Recent petrologic studies (Nishimiya et al., 2010) revealed equilibrium
sapphirine+quartz in these rocks indicating metamorphic temperatures exceeding
1000oC.