Teachers' Perception of Using Instructional Technology in the Classroom

Dongping Zheng
Department of Educational Psychology
University of Connecticut

Paper presented at the Annual Conference of the

American Educational Research Association
Chicago, Illinois
April 21, 2003

Acknowledgements: I would like to thank my formal mentors, Dr. Jann Leppien

and Dr. Scott Brown, for their encouragement and guidance.
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Abstract

The purpose of this study is to investigate and describe the teachers' perceptions of using

instructional technology, so that patterns can be found to develop an effective inserivce

training program. Three most common themes of the inservice teachers studied include:

(1) the varying levels of expertise in using computers; (2) infrastructure problems; and

(3) teacher training in technology. Drill-and-practice is the major use of technology. The

level of teachers' new curriculum innovativeness is directly related to their tendency to

use technology. Not having enough time, computers, and instructional software are also

concerns identified in the study. Teachers acknowledged the importance of inservice

training to prepare them to integrate computers into the classroom and curriculum. The

findings suggest that these concerns need to be addressed when administrators design

technology related training sessions.

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Introduction

It is believed that computers can improve the quality and quantity of teaching and

student learning. Early studies reported some resistance to computer implementation.

Even several recent studies have demonstrated that most teachers will not adopt the use

of computers in those schools surveyed (Marcinkiewicz, Winter 1993-94). The purpose

of this study was to investigate and describe the teacher’s perceptions regarding the

reasons for high level usage and low level usage among their fellow teachers. Through

ethnographic interviews, the study identified teachers' perceptions of using instructional

technology. By examining these factors, the conditions and requirements for developing

an effective training program can be identified.

Review of Literature

Personal Variables

Marcinkiewicz (Winter, 1993-1994) stated that “understanding whether personal

variables influence teachers’ computer use is important to educators.” He found that

there are personal variables contributing to teachers’ levels of computer use and that self-

competence is an aspect of motivation that contributes to a teacher’s pursuit or avoidance

of computer use. Also, innovativeness contributes to the prediction of a teacher’s level of

computer use, which is not surprising, since technology is innovative in nature. On a

practical level, the author recommends evaluating a teacher’s self-competence, and, if

necessary, the use of staff development to intervene.

The relationship of age to computer use is equivocal. In research on innovation,

Rogers and Shoemaker (1971, as cited in Marcinkiewicz, Winter 1993-1994) report that
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the effect of age has shown mixed results. Rogers (1983, as cited in Marcinkiewicz,

winter 1993-1994) reports that the elderly favor change. Loyd and Gressard (1984b, as

cited in Koohang, 1989) also focused on the studies of the variables of age and gender.

According to the authors, some statistically significant age effects were found, but no

clear trend was demonstrated. Gender did not make a significant difference on attitudes

toward computers. However, some studies suggest that male teachers tend to show

slightly more favorable attitudes toward computers use than so females (e.g. Burk, 1986;

Koohang, 1989, as cited in Dupagne & Krendl, 1992).

In general, as Dupagne and Krendl (1992) conclude, years of teaching experience

and age appear to have little impact on attitudes toward computers (e.g. Burke, 1986;

Grasty, 1985; Hagey, 1985; Martin & Lundstrim, 1988; Smith, 1985), the level of

knowledge about computers (Mitchell, 1985), and the willingness to use computers

(Holly, 1988; Mitchell, 1985).

Teachers’ Attitudes Toward Computers

In the last two decades, reports have indicated that teachers have somewhat

ambivalent attitudes toward computer technology. In a survey conducted in 1976,

Lichtman (1979, as cited in Dupagne & Krendl, 1992) found that educators exhibited less

favorable attitudes toward computers than did the general public. A majority of teachers

(55%) perceived computer technology as a dehumanizing tool.

Perception of Computers

The level of enthusiasm about computer use increases when a teacher has more

computer experience (Koohang, 1987; Woolsey, 1985 as cited in Dupagne & Krendl,

1992).
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In expressing their concerns about computer use, teachers report that they do not

have enough time to carry out computer activities in the classroom (Aust et al., 1989:

Cox, Rhodes, & Hall, 1988 etc., as cited in Dupagne & Krendl, 1992). Additional teacher

concerns include lack of hardware and software (Hagey, 1985; Knupfer, 1989 etc., as

cited in Dupagne & Krendl, 1992), lack of relevant achievement tests to evaluate student

performance ( Woodward & Mathinos, 1987, as sited in Dupagne & Krendl, 1992), and

inadequate training (Taylor, 1987; Woodrow, 1987, as sited in Dupagne & Krendl, 1992).

While some teachers view computer use as a valuable tool for instruction

(Djooya, 1986; Manarino-Lettett &Cotton, 1985; Woolsey, 1985, as cited in Dupagne &

Krendl, 1992), others consider computers as a threat to their role as educators (Callister,

1986: Moskowitz, 1984, as cited in Dupagne & Krendl, 1992). In addition, some

teachers feel that computers reduce individualized instruction to students (Woodrow,

1987, as cited in Dupagne & Krendl, 1992). Yet, Moskowitz (1984, as cited in Dupagne

& Krendl, 1992) found that teachers favored the use of computer-assisted instruction

because they could devote more time to teaching. Dupagne & Krendl (1992) report that

teachers viewed microcomputers as an alternative for reviewing and reinforcing material

in the reading curriculum.

Educators are also concerned with how to integrate computers into the classroom

and the curriculum (Aust et al., 1989; Cumming, 1988; Knupfer, 1989, as cited in

Dupagne & Krendl, 1992). The extent to which students learn through the use of

microcomputers is central to teachers’ preoccupation (Cumming, 1988, as cited in

Dupagne & Krendl, 1992).

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Some teachers fear that the school administration might focus exclusively on the

integration of certain highly cognitive computer applications, such as computer-based

writing and problem solving, in the curriculum. Therefore, despite favorable comments,

teacher rarely use drill-and practice programs, which are viewed as lower cognitive

computer applications (Woodward & Mathinos, 1987, as cited in Dupagne & Krendl,

1992).

Therefore, the way teachers use computers has a direct influence on their

attitudes. For example, in another study, teachers who had positive attitudes toward the

use of computers for problem solving exhibited negative attitudes toward the use of

computers for computer-assisted instruction and vice versa (Simon, 1984, as cited in

Dupagne & Krendl, 1992).

Impact of Computer Use

In general, knowledge of computers and computer experience have a positive

impact on teachers’ attitudes. Not surprisingly, teachers who had no professional

experience with computers were less knowledgeable about the application of computers

in the classroom. Research shows that having a knowledge of computers influences

teachers’ attitudes toward computers and computer use (Mitchell, 1985; Taylor, 1985, as

cited in Dupagne & Krendl, 1992).

Teachers who use or own computers are more likely to exhibit favorable attitudes

toward computer use in the classroom (Bassler et al., 1984; Burke, 1986; Delfrate, 1987;

Taylor, 1985, as cited in Dupagne & Krendl, 1992). Educators with previous computer

skills tend to show lower levels of anxiety toward computers that do other educators
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(Honeyman & White, 1987,as cited in Dupagne & Krendl, 1992). In sum, the literature

suggests that computer experience fosters positive attitudes toward the use of computers.

Research shows that teachers’ computer use encourages students to use

microcomputers (Cox et al., 1988; Holley, 1988, as cited in Dupagne & Krendl, 1992).

Teacher attitudes toward computers may also influence student achievement; that is,

students instructed by teachers with positive attitudes toward the technology

demonstrated improved performance (eg., Moore, 1988, as cited in Dupagne & Krendl,

1992).

Teacher Training

National strategies for in-service professional development of teachers have

typically been directed at two levels. One deals with introducing teachers to information

and communication technologies and preparing them to use a microcomputer or modem

or how to manage the hardware in their classroom. Use of the computer, however, is not

improved simply through the acquisition of knowledge (Hannifan et al., 1987, as cited in

Gilmore, 1995). The second level deals with training teachers in the pedagogical uses of

computers.

The critical issue to be addressed, if teachers are to confront the challenge of

computers in schools and optimize their instructional potential, is professional

development; specially, the methods of teacher training, the length of that training, and its

content (Makrakis, 1991, as cited in Gilmore, 1995). Hannifan, Dalton, and Hooper

(1987, as cited in Gilmore, 1995) summed up teacher training needs by stating that

substantially greater effort must be made to improve the quality and nature of teacher

training.
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The literature stresses the importance of training to stimulate teachers’ computer

use and to foster favorable attitudes toward computers (eg., Hagey, 1985; Martin &

Lundstrom, 1988; Nevin, 1987; Sebastiani, 1985, as cited in Dupagne & Krendl, 1992).

Both computer users and nonusers reported that workshops with peers were the most

preferred type of training (Retacco, 1989, as cited in Dupagne & Krendl, 1992).

Participants in inservice training stated that hands-on computer work is the most effective

training method (Johnson, 1988, as cited in Dupagne & Krendl, 1992). Teachers who

have had computer training are more likely to show positive attitudes toward computer

use in the classroom (Burke, 1986; Evans, 1987; Hagey, 1985 etc., as cited in Dupagne &

Krendl, 1992). Microcomputer training, such as inservice training and workshops, tend

to increase computer use (Evans, 1987, as cited in Dupagne & Krendl, 1992) and

improve knowledge of computers (Murray, 1986; Nevin, 1987, as cited in Dupagne &

Krendl, 1992). Smith (1987, as cited in Dupagne & Krendl, 1992) reported similar

results. The less anxious teachers are about computers, the more likely they are to

implement computers in the curriculums.

On the other hand, Murray (1986, as cited in Dupagne & Krendl, 1992) found no

significant relationship between teachers’ attitudes toward computers and completion of

microcomputer training. Despite these results, lack of training seems to account for

teachers’ low level of confidence when they initiate computer activities (Cox et al., 1988,

as cited in Dupagne & Krendl, 1992).

As Winner (1983, as cited in Woodrow, 1991) stated, “ if the [initial] training is

irrelevant, too complex or technical, educators [and students] will shy away from

mastery” (p.155). Schools that introduce computers via programming courses when
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teachers feel that word processing is the foremost student computer need are bound to

face teacher resistance.

Research Questions

The objective of the proposed study is to investigate and describe the teachers'

perceptions of using instructional technology in the classroom. The study will attempt to

describe the factors that influence teachers' use of technology in the classroom through

analyzing the difference between teachers who display a higher level of computer usage

(hereafter referred to as higher users) versus those teachers who use computers less

frequently or at a lower level (hereafter referred to as lower users). The following

research questions will guide the study:

1. How do teachers perceive the use of technology in the classroom?

2. What traits distinguish teachers who display a higher level of computer usage

versus those who use computers less frequently?

3. What problems, real and perceived, affect teachers' acceptance of technology

in the classroom?

4. Is training from the school and school district sufficient and appropriate to

make teachers feel knowledgeable in using instructional technology?

Methodology

The questions posed require a qualitative approach which seeks to ascertain why

some teachers in a American elementary environment are motivated to integrate

computers into their teaching and some are not; therefore ethnographic research methods

are appropriate for this study. These questions are to focus on participants perspectives

(Erickson, 1986) and by learning the perspective s of the participants “illuminate the
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inner dynamics of the situations” (Bogdan & Biklen, 1992, p.32). Ethnography is the

work of describing a culture, in this instance, the culture of teachers in a western public

elementary school. To understand the perspectives that these teachers have regarding the

use of instructional technology in the classroom, a cross comparison of the teachers'

interview statements was conducted to identify and describe patterns and themes.

Permission was granted to conduct the research at a public elementary school,

Great Falls Public Schools by the principal via email communication and personal visit.

Sample Selection

The nature of naturalistic inquiry or ethnographic research determined the type of

sampling employed in this study. Purposive sampling was used to select subjects who

could contribute to the generation of theory and to the expansion of the developing theory

(Bogdan & Biklen, 1992; Lincoln & Guba, 1985). Maximum variation sampling, a type

of purposive sampling, was used in this study to enable the researcher to document and

include those “unique variations” or cases which deviate from the norm (Patton, 1980, as

cited in Leppien, 1995) and increase the scope or range of the data collected (Lincoln &

Guba, 1985). According to Lincoln and Guba (1985) maximum variation is best

achieved by selecting each unit of the sample only after the previous unit has been

tapped. The purpose for this sampling procedure is to “generate the information upon the

emergent design and grounded there can be based” (p.201). The subjects for this study

were 6 elementary school teachers who teach grades 2-5 and have teaching experience

less than 5 years, between 5 to 10 years and over 10 years. Due to elementary staff

imbalance of gender, there was only one male sample selected. Approximately half of

the teachers were identified as those who were using technology to a higher degree, while
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the other half of the sample had demonstrated less technology usage. For the purpose of

this study, higher users are the ones who have reached utilization level or above in

computer use and view technology as a tool for understanding. The level of computer

use is defined in Marcinkiewicz (1994-95). Teachers’ computer use was categorized into

three levels, Nonuse, Utilization, and Integration. These levels are based on the model of

instructional transformation, in which a teacher’s involvement with computers is

described as occurring in five progressive levels. At first, a teacher becomes familiar with

computers (familiarization). The teacher then begins to use computers in teaching

(utilization). A higher level of use is observed when the teacher’s computer use becomes

critical to his or her teaching (integration). At this level, teachers consciously and

inextricably delegate some of their duties to the computer and become aware of the

resulting changes to their role. This new awareness of the restructuring of instructional

activities leads to a process of fine tuning the computer-teacher-student relationship

(reorientation). During the final stage, evolution, the teacher continues to practice and

learn about improving instruction through the systematic implementation of computer

technology. The teacher must remain sensitive to, prepare for, and adapt to change.

The sample of eligible teachers was recommended by the school’s principal and

educational technician. Those teachers identified for the study as high users have to

meet 3 of the following 4 criteria: (1) has been conducting leadership in computer use

within school building or (2) has organized her classroom for maximum opportunity for

student interaction with technology; (3) computer use is at the utilization level or above;

and (4) has demonstrated self-efficacy and innovativeness in using technology. The
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source of the criteria to label higher users was pooled from recommendations made by

the principal.

For the purpose of the study, the second group of teachers using technology are

defined as those who use technology at the conventional level in their daily lives and in

teaching, and those who do not use technology as a tool for promoting in various

disciplines. Additionally, the following criteria were used to select the teachers who are

using technology to a lower degree for this study. The teachers: (1) view technology as a

district requirement or (2) use computers for skills mastery; (3) consider computer use in

the classroom as a reward for finishing traditional classroom activities; and (4) have

demonstrated low self-efficacy and low level of innovativeness.

Data Collection

Data collection for this study utilized two important sources: (1) interviews

which documented perceptions regarding teachers computer usage and (2) documents

which provided a rich description of the phenomenon under investigation (Spradley,

1970). The use of ethnographic interviews was used to obtain the subject’s perceptions

regarding the reasons for high level usage and low level usage among teachers. In-depth

interviews were conducted with identified teachers by the researcher. The interviews

were designed to collect descriptive data in the “subjects’ own words” that pertained to

the research questions under investigation and to “develop insights’ on how subjects

interpret some piece of the world” (Bogdan & Biklen, 1992). At the beginning of the

interview, demographic questions were asked to obtain a general understanding of how

the subjects perceive their teaching experience and technology in general and encourage

the subjects to express themselves freely about a topic of interest that may make them
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more comfortable with the interview process. After the investigative work had been

conducted, semi-structured interviews consisted of open-ended questions designed to

obtain a more complete understanding of the views of the participants themselves,

providing a clear understanding for the reasons underlying higher computer use and

lower computer use of western American elementary school teachers. Similar grand-tour

questions were followed by specific follow-up questions seeking to understand the

subjects’ and other participants’ perceptions about their “tacit knowledge” from what

transpired during the interview process (Spradley, 1979, pp.8-9). With the use of semi-

structured interviews, comparable data across subjects was accomplished. Limited

documents were collected to furnish the research with background information about

availability of technology and the district and school technology plans.

Data Analysis

Collection of data consists of interviews made with participants which were

transcribed following each interview. The collected data were analyzed following

systematic procedures, outlined by Strauss and Corbin (1990) to generate a “rich, tightly

woven, explanatory theory” (p.57) and to develop an “inductively derived grounded

theory” (p.24) about the phenomenon of technology usage of elementary school teachers.

As suggested by these researchers, the data analysis coincided with data collection and

affected the collection of additional data. The analysis procedures employed three

hierarchical, yet interrelated and recurring types of coding: (1) open coding; (2) axial

coding; (3) selective coding. Open coding was used by the researcher to compare and

contrast discrete parts of the data to formulate conceptual labels. Then these concepts

were compared for similarities and grouped together under a higher order, more abstract
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concept called category (p. 61-74). The next stage in coding was axial coding where the

focus is on identifying and linking subcategories to a category by a set of relationships

which denote causal conditions; intervening conditions; action or interactional strategies

by which it is handled, managed or carried out and the consequences of those strategies;

and the context in which it is imbedded (pp.96-107). These concepts and relationships

arrived at through deductive thinking must be repeatedly verified in the actual data in

order for it to become part of the theory building that the researcher is generating (pp.

111-112). In the final stages of coding, selective coding procedures guided the selection

of a core category to relate all major categories to each other and the core category. This

integration formed a grounded theory from which descriptive narrative about the central

phenomenon of the study was articulated (pp. 116-129).

Findings

The three most common patterns or themes across the cases of the inservice

teachers studied include: (1) the varying levels of expertise in using computers; (2)

infrastructure problems; and (3) teacher training in technology. In presenting the themes,

every effort has made to retain the voices of inservice teachers as they talked about their

perceptions of computer use in the classroom.

Stages of Computer Usage

In this study, the level of nonuse is the absence of any use of computers at all for

teaching. Most of the teachers exhibited a level of use between familiarization and

utilization, and even exemplary teachers within the study are at the lower degree of

integration. Nearly all of those who did use computers were at a level where the

computers were expendable, that is, not really necessary for the instruction to occur.
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If we take lower users as a group, obviously some teachers did not view

computers as a tool for understanding but instead as form of entertainment. As one

teacher stated about her use of computers with her students, “They spend time on the

computer, either doing a game or a puzzle or something…I will try to get them on it at

least once a week, just to be free to do what they want on it.” Starting at the lowest level

of utilization, teachers tended to view student computer use as a reward for

accomplishing other classroom tasks, as identified by this comment, “I think a lot of them

(students) think of it as a reward, and I think that’s because of how I’ve used it.” “ I’ll

say, ‘If you have finished your work you can go work on the computer.’”

Also, the same group of teachers view computer use as reinforcement for

previously presented classroom material. Chris stated her belief in this practice,

I guess the computer is used more as a reinforcer. I do not actually use it

to teach lessons, but they may get on a program later on and do like Sticky
Bear Math and do addition and subtraction, time problems. So I think it is
more of reinforcer. At least that's how I've been using it.

Lulu shared how she conducted technology in the classroom:

So I guess as a reinforcer or backup for what I already taught, then we go

and practice it on those programs. It gives the kids the opportunity to
extend or to practice what they need to work on after the class.

Karren tried to coordinate the classroom activities with software available in the

computer lab. However this kind of integration is also based on drills-and-practice.

For learning math facts and there are just a lot of good activities on the
Apple IIEs to enhance their skills, basic skills in various areas. It might be
English, the study of the different parts of speech or it might be different
math activities, comparing decimals, just a lot of different things that are
beneficial for kids. I so try to coordinate with what we are doing in
spelling, and I do from math whatever we are currently in class. I try to
plug them into some math activity in the lab that is what we are doing
currently in class. If we are working on multiplication, then we will be
doing something with either multiplication drills or some multiplication
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activities. If they are working with comparing decimals then we will find
a decimal activity. So I do try to coordinate it. I don't use it as a free time,
'you can play a game now'.

At the highest level of computer usage the researcher found teachers who are

beginning to integrate computers within the lesson plans. Teachers at this level spoke

differently about their use of computers in the classroom. Dawn stated, “… A wonderful

graphing program that meshed in real well with birthday graphing that we were doing

with everyday counting and that graphing is mainly the one I use this year. It was

excellent because they can do bar graphs, pie graphs, all kinds of graphs.”

Teachers using computers to a high degree tended to use technology as an integral

component of their teaching process and planning. Sam shared the types of activities he

uses, “… but more the whole teaching process, O.K., we have this writing project, let’s

say they are going to carry it all the way through the writing process, and we are going to

publish them on computers. The kids just love that, or maybe we will publish them this

time by making them into a slide show.” The students of the higher users tend to use

technology more for doing research report. Kate agreed,“ … so they had to use different

resources, encyclopedias, or a web site for that state to find information to put together

and make an oral presentation.” Sam also reported“ I do my research and I also have

students do research.”

Lower users relied on the CCC software to do drills and enhance classroom

learning. On the other hand, higher users used a higher level of software as a center point

for their instruction. Sam commented that his students

They also do slide show presentations on ClarisWorks and Hyper

Studio… I use Amazon Trail, Oregon Trail, those types of simulation
games where the students are basically a character in some king of voyage
and they make decisions as they are going through.
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Edmarks Imagination Express. They have 4 thematic units: Rainforest,

Ocean, Castles, and Neighborhood. This program is full of factual
information that students can learn about the subject and it has an icon that
allows the students to hear what the words are. Then you can make an
electronic book and have a choice of various backgrounds, people,
animals, plants, etc. Then you can type in your story and make as many
pages as you need to complete your story. This program allows you to do
animations and pick sounds, even record your own sound effects. It is a
marvelous program. I also like Writers workshop, which has many
keyboarding activities that will sequence skills such as changing fonts,
size of print, color text, bold, etc. Another good program is called Learn
To Type which helps with the basic keyboarding skills and finger
placement, etc. I use these programs to enhance what we are already
doing.

Higher users realized the value of designing an activity, which, when coupled

with technology, enhances intrapersonal learning. It was not uncommon for these

teachers to assign students in groups to use the computer. For example, Kate said, “I

would show them demonstrations and a small group of maybe 4 or 5 students ….” In

comparison, teachers who use computers less frequently feared a lack of socialization

associated with computer use. As Lulu stated,

Because I think that the interaction between the kid and the teacher or the
parents. There is a lot to learn just from that, the basic interaction. But
the computer can give us a lot information, but the child does not have
respond only by pushing the button or clicking the mouse. That’s all they
need to do. So the social interaction I think that especially at this age
social interaction is so much a part of their learning. So I guess that I will
be my fear, that I don’t think that should be the focus.

For myself I think that most of the initial learning on skills I like it to be
interactive with another person. So I would not try out to be siting over
the computer day after day and missing out on what’s happening in the
classroom.

I would I never used one but I do not think it should replace the interaction
with peers. I think we interact with each other, there is a lot to learn
besides just the science we may be doing.

In addition, Dawn agreed,

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But sometimes I wonder about learning in a social context, learning should

be a social, interacting, well it is not when you are on the computer
because you just over there obsessed and clicking and you do not have to
interact or be socially connected to anyone. I see that as a negative. I
think at this age we have to learn to get along, no yelling or arguing, try to
discuss it. children are so self obsessed with anyway. To be at the
computer, me and my machine, that is all and I think we do not serve
children well by giving them more that kind of opportunity and should be
giving them less.

The Use of Computers as an Administrative Tool

As used in this study, technology or computer use is defined as using technology

with students in the classroom setting; however it is important to note that all subjects

consider themselves users of technology, even when their use was for administrative and

personal matters. It seems that teachers who use computers to a high degree also use

them for administrative and personal matters.

I am still working to figure out all the ins and outs if writing program like
ClarisWorks. Each year I push myself to do a little bit more. This years I
am trying to, whenever I have notes that I want to take on kids to keep a
record of contacts with parents and trying to put that into computer, and I
am trying to write up my conference reports from there. But I know a
number of teachers that are at the point that they do their lesson plans and
things like that and I am not there. So that’s kinds where I am at.

Oh, very useful. Like I said, I type all my lesson plans with it…It makes
things look a lot more professional as far as printing, makes a lot of
calculations easier. I use it for my grades, I do all my report cards, I type
in the students’ grades and it averages everything out for me so I can print
out those things.

But what really got me hooked on computers, I think it was the email.
Because have that computer in your room, being able to get a message to
someone quickly. For instance, if I had a difficult student who needs to be
removed from a room, maybe he is throwing a temper tantrum throwing
chairs or desks. I was able to email to the office. You know like that and
have someone in my room immediately help me with that student. So it is
nice to have that support with that email to get messages, also I use it to
set up these meetings for these kids when I have to a classroom teacher
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and principal, and a speech therapist and can email all of them at the same
time. I get confirmation back from them and I can set up with parents. It
is so much easier than trying to find someone after school or in between
classes. And email they can read at their convenience. It just so nice that
it made my job so much easier.

Barriers to Computer Implementation

New Curriculum Innovativeness

Innovativeness is the degree to which an individual is early in adopting

innovations relative to others in a social system (Hurt, Joseph, & Cook, 1977, as cited in

Marcinkiewicz, Winter 1993-1994). In this study, the researcher found that higher users

are likely to be more innovative. As Kate shared, "I will never want to be illiterate about

anything." She is also willing and intending to integrate technology to motivate students:

When you find what the kids interests are, especially kids who are
reluctant readers or reluctant at anything, for instance this one in the blue
T-shirt is very reluctant but found out he likes rocks and he likes
collecting rocks and he brought me a whole box of rocks. He stated
writing stories about rocks. I found some lesson plan on the Internet about
rocks. So we really turned him around. It sort of helped motivate him. So
that is neat if you can do that.

Karen also stated, " I just think it is probably the current trend and I think it is

really where it its at and we really need to be working to improve our skills with

technology and continue to try to use it the best advantage with students."

Teachers who lack innovativess in using technology either have very limited

experience with computers and not willing to experience new technology, or in doubt of

the value of the computers in the classroom. Chris and Dawn frankly told the researcher,

Finding Internet stuff, knowing where to go, what to find. And getting at
it quickly. I would have to say I’m not real good with slide shows. I’ve
had some training on how to do a slide show, like how to do a HyperCard
Studio, but I’ve never done it; I’m lacking in that area and it’s something I
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would like to do. I have had the training and now it’s just a matter of,
HyperCard Studio is so complicated that, even though it was explained to
me, I don’t think I could ever do it unless someone walked me through
step by step. So that I would like to know more about and if Sam trains a
time on that I will go to his training on the slideshow thing, because I’d
like to know how to do that. I don’t feel like I am very adequate in that
area at all.

I have not done internetting, going searching and bookmarking I have not
done that. I am not comfortable with that yet. I do not know when I find
the time or want to give the time to go over there surf and surf whatever
you want to call it. To find what would really enhance what we were
doing, I am sure it is there but I am not probably going to be the one to
find it. I probably take somebody else’, they will give you the addresses
and it is good. I will say, “OK, fine , I will use it.” That is how will I do it
probably. I will not be surfing around and trying to find something.

It is interesting to note that teacher's innovativeness does not persist when she is

confronted with new technology. Lulu freely shared her experience with technology:

My comfort level. I had never used it (computer) and then I started, my

brother started me, I use a lot of poetry in my teaching and he just quickly
taught me how to type poems on the computer and use different fonts and
just by playing with it then I got more comfortable and I’m willing to try
things. I guess it’s just practicing. My husband was in a job where they
had a lot of computers in his office and before we had kids I would go
with him at night and he would do his work and I would work on the
computer and I remember I would always be saying “Help me!” I’m stuck.
But now I’ve just learned push a button and if that does not work, push
another one. And I’ve gotten more comfortable. So I am able to be a
good resource for the people around here for things like Claris Works and
CCC. Those kinds of things, I have a pretty good memory. So when
things like that come up, I’m good at it. But if it’s trying to find new
things I’m still intimidated.

Time during the Day

All the subjects but one stressed that time was the big problem. They complained

that they do not have time to do Internet searching:

I access Internet to get ideas for lesson plans, to learn more about some of
the disabilities my kids might have. Just recently, I access some
information at home. I really do not use it here at school much because I
do not have time.
 21

I haven't been good about doing, finding things on the Internet and putting
those into my lesson plans. I don't do that. If I knew how to do that and
knew how to do it quickly, time is hard. There are a lot of other things I
do on the computer that have more priority than the Internet.

I find it (Internet) quite overwhelming and quite time-consuming to find

what you are looking for, so I tend to stay away from if and that's probably
my fault. I probably should not do that but I do. Kind avoid it, but if it's
bookmarked then it is much easier, that I don't mind. It is just not it's hard
to find.

I do not know when I find the time or give the time to go over there surf
whatever you want to call it….

Additionally, some of the teachers complained that they do not have enough time

to use more technology because of different kinds of district mandates. CCC is as defined

by Sam, " CCC program we are required to do and there are certain students if they get a

40 percentile or lower in reading or math on the their Iowa Basic scores the year before

they have to be on CCC every day for 15 minutes every day. That’s district-wide. He also

shared his frustration about too much time designated to CCC:

I think there are some good points about CCC and students can benefit a
lot from them. It’s a shame to have to use so many computers just for that
purpose and not have them available for other for other things that can
really challenge students.

Chris agreed with Sam:

But is hard with one computer. That is the problem. It is hard to use to
your advantage with computer and with our schedules packed and tight
with everything we have to get through each day. It leaves no time for
computers. And that the only way I can get it in is to do it as a center each
day for 30 minutes. But to go through the regular day, you know if I do
computers I have to cut out math, science or reading and language.
Now those are the most important things and our district stresses that. So
it is hard to get in this district because of the things they require us to do. It
is really hard to get that time on the computer. It is a complaint because
instead we are down with the CCC and they are doing these remedial
which are probably are good programs. They are doing those so they do
not get a lot of free expression and they don’t get to play around a lot on
 22

those. So it is kind of frustrating. It is a frustration for our district because

of that.

Other than that I think our district is unique in the fact that the students are
required to get on each day and do CCC. So our lab is used strictly for the
CCC.

Some other teachers do not use technology a lot because they could not find time

after what they have to finish the district curriculum requirements. Dawn expressed

herself about the district mandating:

I have not done (using softwares) as much this year because truthfully we
are bogged down right up to our eyebrows with this new reading program.
It is very massive. It just takes much much time.

Kate, considered as a higher user of technology both by the principle, the

technologist and the researcher, also holds the same perception, “ … I have the kids

access that and there a lot of sites out there for kids. You get tied into what you think

they have to be doing because of the school district. You do not have a lot of time left

over for things you like to do.

Infrastructure Problems

Lack of Preparedness within the School Setting

Teachers who use technology to a higher degree held a strong opinion about the

situation of lower level computer usage across grades levels. Sam stated:

It’s frustrating at times, partially I guess on a selfish or greedy side I see

all the wonderful things I could be doing with computers and so often
wish that I had ten computers in my room so that I could send a group of
10 back to type or ward processing or something, and then to get kids
coming in who don’t even have the basic word processing skills, how to
use Claris Works, how to use a spreadsheet, because they haven’t even
had a chance to be on those programs. Some times I feel, give me their
computers and I’ll get them on there and that’s a selfish thing. Or way to
think, but yet it is frustrating to try and use the computers as much as I can
and if the kids are even knowledgeable with the basic word processing, it
 23

kind of sets us back to where I can’t get into the level of instructional
technology I would like to be at right away.

Kate, the special ed teacher, had the same experience of dealing with kids from

general education population who haven’t dealt with the basic skills:

While they learn their key boarding skills which is OK because they just
learning the fingering that for that slide show I know I had to help them a
lot understanding what was happening when they move that cursor
around. To me that’s very basic, obviously that something they haven’t
dealt with and the other kids haven’t either in the general ed population.
Until we get more computers in our classroom and get them active they
are not going to learn it. - That is why I am writing that grant to try getting
more technology in my room.

Lack of Software Programs

Lack of software is another frustration for teachers who want to utilize more

technology into their classroom. Dawn mentioned:

Like my teaching partner next door she has a disc and it is on zoos and it
id downloaded on her machine and she said, “ I am just hogging it, after it
and I should not be.” And I go “OK, well maybe when you are done then
I can get it”. It is like going on a tour of many different zoos, big zoos.
Would not that just be great? There is lots available. I probably will get
that form her. There are other discs that are good and I used some of them
last year.

Chris would have her students have much more fun and she would incorporate

more technology into her instruction if she got hold of some CD programs,

Depending on what CDs we have too, you know a lot of it is, like right
now we are doing light and electricity there are not much for CD. At least
our library does not nave much for CDs, but for like oceans, dinosaurs,
animals, I try to get them on the computer at least once a week so that they
can kinda explore on that.
 24

Sam who organized the technology committee within the school building also

mentioned lack of software, “They also do slide show presentations on Claris Works,

Hyper Card Studio, very limited because we don’t have many license s in the building.”

Lack of Hardware

Although there is a lab in the building and each classroom on average is signed up

for the lab four times a week for thirty minutes each time, teachers still need more

computers in their classroom. Kate shared her concerns, "…But try to use technology as

often as I can by integrating it with a writing assignment or a research on a subject. This

is a slow process when I only have one computer in my room. "Sam has three computers

in his room. As the researcher observed, his room is the only one that has three computers

in the building, but he still needs more computers:

Probably not as much as I would like too because I don’t have as much of
it as I would what in my classroom. If I had more of what I wanted in my
classroom I would probably have students on it half the time but fright
now I find that they are in the computers maybe, that in actually use for
support, maybe one or two hours a day.

Chris complained about the uneven funding within school district which led

her to use less technology than ever before.

But is hard with one computer. That is the problem. Like West was at the
time a Title 1 school, still is, was Chapter 1 at the time, which means they
get a lot more state funding, because they qualify, they have so many
people on the school lunch program, and so they are a lower income
school, so at West I had 3 computers, 3 Macs in my room and then they
also had the CCC in lab. So my kids were getting on the computer a lot
more there because Title 1 qualified for more computers. Here we only
have 1, but it is harder to get them on 1, so we don’t have the funding
either some other schools have. But if you go to Longfellow and some of
those schools, you will see that they have a lot more in their classroom
than we do. But I think the teachers support that.

While other teachers complained about lack of computers, Karren who has been
 25

teaching for 39 years was satisfied with the sufficient technology available to her

compared to ten years ago:

Within our school district I think made at the last ten yeas it is really come
on line. You know before that we've had computers around for a long
time. One we used 25 years ago in the classroom but it is one computer
for the building as today we have many computers and our computer lab is
re3allyu nice and beneficial for kids

Other Problems

There are some other concerns about using technology. For example, Internet

blocking problems, unexpected technological problems, instructional management

problems, software and hardware out-of-date problems.

Kate and Sam expressed their concerns about Internet blocking problems:

When I’m using internet of course I always have to have that properly
monitored so students do not get somewhere where they shouldn’t be, so
that they are safe, that’s always a concern. I also have to make sure I have
someone when they are on there, that’s something I can’t, even the
students I trust most, for there safety I would never put them back on the
computer alone, so that’s always a concern,

I think since then they have added a kind of a nanny to block out some of
the bad things on Internet. But it only blocks out 80 to 85 percent, for
instance last year I had one kid that really like Michael Jordan, we got into
this dispute about how old he was. So I just said let’s look at the web site
see if we can find information about MJ. Well somebody on the list of
thing about MJ, somebody did not like MJ because it has cuss words with
his name and had nothing good to say about him. And thank goodness
this was at the bottom of this page and the kids were at the top of the
screen. And I said, Oh this is not where we want to be and we found
something else and we found out the age but it did not block out
everything.

Unexpected technological problems bothered Sam:

There’s always a concern when I’m putting on a presentation of something

not working, you know, a cord missing or something or something like
that, that concern when I go to set up.

Sam and Dawn saw instructional management problems as troublesome:

 26

There’s the concern of having a student on the computer while I’m

instructing the rest of the class, the concern of, ok, is that person missing
out on what I am teaching, to get them caught up. Management is always a
concern,

Like when you are not doing CCC on the computer available so that
somebody is always working on something. I realize that. Boy, that is
tough, it is hard because you never have your whole group. And it is
always like “ well I was on the computer.” “ well ask someone, remember,
find out” they know they can not use that as an excuse because it will not
work. You just say NO, you go ask someone you trust to give you the
directions that you missed, you have to able to just pick up whatever you
missed and move on. If they say “ Ai me me….” Then OK , you will not
have computer time because you can not seem to be gone for even ten or
fifteen minutes without getting all frustrated. So you have to be able to be
over there for that amount of time and then come back and figure it out not
an excuse.

Software and hardware out-of-date problems were reported by Kate and Dawn:

One thing you have to realize with technology is that it is wonderful,

but expect glitches. It seems that more things can go wrong than right
sometimes. The problem is that technology is changing so fast that the
companies that put out the latest version of software is trying to make
money. Therefore, often the product is not tested for bugs or things
working as specified. I never get software that has a version code that
ends with a zero. For instance: Filemaker Pro 2.0, It is better to wait
until they come out with 2.1, the same holds true with about any software.

Can the school afford to even get into technology because it is obsolete in
a heart beat and how can we say current when it is so costly. Now our
buildings are starting to get filled with computers which are obsolete. I
mean they need to be trashed out. Hoho, tax payers are paying for all this.
It is a costly thing.

It is interesting to note that there is one teacher, Dawn, worried about idle

clicking, and that the computer will take the place of books.

Actually, sometimes I do question whether it is good, medium good or

not good because you wonder in the primary grades where we are trying to
get children connected with print, I realize the computer is print but you
thing they are able to read, they are not able to read that well some of them
 27

or not that connected to books. If you give some of them your choice “
would you rather reading a book or work a program at the computer”
What will they pick?

Teacher Training in Technology

Sufficiency of Training Available to Teachers

When it comes to training available within school district, teachers' responses

were mixed. Some teachers thought that training was adequate and some considered that

training was deficient. Dawn mentioned:

There has been different classes that they offered, and right now Dean, he
applied some kind of grant last year which he got a computer, and could
have been money as part of it. And the other thing was that if he got it, he
agreed as part of his prize that he would help train certain numbers of
people in this building. Or if it was not called train them, he would help
them, they would lean on him. It is like lean on me type of thing, you
know I can help you. So a number of us signed up for that my self
included. We really haven’t met other than the first time which I could
not go because I had anther meeting to go to. In the meeting you were to
write down what are your areas of need and so he will just try to bunch us
into groups. If he has to we are going to do it like after school, or maybe
an evening session. And also there are a lot of aids from the school:
myself and I don’t know total. That is a wonderful opportunity, right here
in my building with one I would feel so comfortable with. So I have no
excuse. There is help available if you want to seek it work.

Chris also mentioned that training is adequate:

Yeah we were trained last year on the internet, we’re trained in how to use
it appropriately so that the kids don’t get into something they should not
be. Sam, with technology, has been kind of been doing it and I have not
been going to any of them. But he’s been doing the training, the different
things you can use on the computer with technology. But as far as the
Internet itself, yeah I guess we’ve had minimum, yeah I guess we’ve had
training on that. I felt like its been fairly adequate, like I said I don’t spend
a lot of time on the internet, that’s part of it, but I think it’s adequate, for
the most part.

Kate, who is taking a master’s program on educational technology, views the

availability of training as irrelevant to herself:

 28

The district that I work for did provide some training when the schools
were networked and we had, for the first time, access to internet. There
were also classes offered with various general programs like the
ClarisWorks and Hyper Studio, but that was free choice and
many teachers did not take advantage of it. I personally could see the
necessity of incorporating more technology into the curriculum if we want
our students to be job-ready when they get out of high school.

On the contrary, more than half of the teachers did not think that training was

adequate. Lulu did not feel that she has enough training:

I have taken training for CCC, but as far as training in college all we did
was Logo. That was technology training in college. I have had not a class
but a training session how to use internet and one time the computer
person form the school district came and spent the day and came in and
did some internet things with the kids, taught us how to use bookmarks
and things like that. But I took a ClarisWorks class, so basically word
processing what I can do there. I haven’t ever taken a training that helps
me to deal with my kids. Like Dean is offering extra help. But as far as
district wide training for us I haven't.

We have to use CCC. We don’t have a technology (requirement) in my

grade like certain learner outcomes for technology. Third grade they do
keyboarding, and fourth grade they do Logo so in the older grades, those
teachers have been trained, but not us in the primary level. (technology
requirement)

Sam did not think that training was sufficient either:

Not a lot. I have taken some of the district classes that we’ve had to take,
some Internet and CCC training. I had some computer training in college;
instructional computing which was required for elementary education. I
went to a 2 day workshop last summer for my laptop computer, some
things about internet and those types of things and a little bit of computer
training through this STEP program, which was basically a student teacher
program but they expanded it now to be a mentoring program for early
career teachers, so early career teachers such as myself that have had 0-3
years experience are matched up with another teacher in the state whose
had more teaching experience. We communicate over email and we go to
conferences together. It’s mainly a science and math emphasis type thing
and computers are of course a big part of those areas.

Karren shared her beliefs:

 29

Not really, I have not taken a computer class, just some in-service
meetings we have occasionally, but I have not really taken a college
credits. We have had different little workshops on ClarisWorks at
different times, and on the implementation of the CCC program that we
use. There has been some in-service on use of the Internet. I think we
could always use more. I think for those of us who are older, sometimes
we drag our feet with technology and it’s probably a little bit harder to get
into it and really use it.

Kate was very innovative in using technology and she is self taught:

I train myself. But actually I am working on Master’s in technology. And

one of the most interesting questions I have had when I tell people I am
doing this, they say what does technology have to do with education. I
have two people asked me that. Oh, my gosh, that to me is what is down
to the road. That is what we have to train ourselves. We can be there
when it does get there. I think we are behind the times as I t is. We should
be there already.

The researcher mentioned a little earlier that Kate, as one of the few higher users

of technology, seeks chances to train herself and views district wide training as a

necessity for other teachers. The researcher’s question is, “ Should the school district give

those kinds of teachers a more advanced training program to participate in so that they

can keep growing in this area also and lead to stronger leadership in educational

technology?”

Comfortable Situations Being Trained

Both higher users and low users reported that workshops with peers and hands-on

work were preferred when time is available.

Lulu stated:

I would give myself time to sit and work and a handbook. It would say
“click here”, “go here”. But just time, that’s what I would offer, even if I
had in this small good old part of my job. Time is what teachers don’t
have.

Sam also explained:

 30

Probably when I feel like I have time, during the school year it’s really
hard because there are so many things going on. I find that summer time is
a better time for me to take classes in computers. More time to actually
think about what I have learned and sit back and reflect upon it. Also I
think it’s important to have time to come back and play with it, whereas
during the school year you sometimes don’t have the time to do that.

Karren also needs time:

I think one of the problems with the training we got, it would be before we
ere really able to use it. We did not have it accessible. Now within the last
year my computer is actually free to use during the day. Before it was
always plug kids into CCC and do things which were not really available
until after school hours and so you didn’t maybe have the time, just had
the class in it but did not have the time to learn, so sometimes the timing
just wasn’t right and now that they are more available, might be better
timing for learning how to do them.

Chris would like to take computers home and practice:

I did take the computer to home with me this summer. I don’t know. I
checked it out for the summer and checked out some of the software that
we have, some of the program on that. I kind of mess round more like the
Claris Works. Oh what I cannot even remember now the programs what
they were, but I guess I would have to take it home. I have to, you know,
the summer take it home and work on it. That will be the way I do it
probably.

Effective Training Plans from Teachers' Point of View

Most teachers shared that they need more time to practice, either in the area

where they have been trained or to mess around to learn new things by themselves.

Lulu stated:

I would just offer a class on basic technology in the classroom. Managing

your computer, and the Internet, so that teachers know the resources that
are available. I think we do not, so a lot of us do, and it’s been people
who have gone ahead and done that on their own. Like Dean, it’s an
interest level for him, a high interest level, he is good at it. With me, it
can’t be, I keep saying this but I do not have the time to sit and…A class
with some short, specific ways to use the Internet for children.

Chris shared:
 31

I would say that if they were going to train us how to do something. They
need to have us in a lab setting where we can all sit there and do it because
if they were just showing you on a overhead screen and you try to write
down all these things you don’t remember when you are going unless you
do it. So that will be my recommendation. You know we are in the lab, in
the setting where we can do it.

Karren and Dawn would like someone to walk them through whenever they need
help:

Ask for other people to come in and show me how to do it. You know like
through kid grant one of the other teachers and myself requested and got
the money to buy the color printer and then I just worked to teach myself
how to use the various part and I have a daughter who has a color printer
and computer at home so she will show me different things and how to do
it so I just learn how to do some of the things on my own or beg, borrow
and steal anyone who will come in and help me when I need help.

My teacher partner right next door, she just said: “Dawn I can help you
with ClarisWorks”. Because whenever she helps me I get these index card
and I write everything down. Like click on this, click on that. I do through
the whole thing and I write it down because if I do not, I mean may be I
can do it again right there at the moment then 2 days later or a week later I
want to do this, if it is like with something on the CCC program then I
can’t do it. For some people it is just automatic, very logical, but for me it
is like “duh”. I do not what to do now, I am befuddled. So I want it all
written down. Then I just look at my card just read it, like the recipe. So I
know if I do it I have put it on my card but I do not care. So what. I just
write at the top what the topic is what I am trying to do.

Sam as a head of the technology committee explained his methods of getting

teachers start to use technology:

We are going to start coming into that meeting as a technology committee

and we are going to instruct them on simple little things, you know. Like a
5 minute lesson on this is how you sat the computer up to the TV so that
you can present, and we are going to have them practice that. I think that
if they actually have the chance to do the little things, get them started and
comfortable I think they will start to use it more, but right now there are
just so many things going on and they get these big things, like how to use
the internet, that’s a big thing and its hard to put that into practice in the
classroom, whereas if we give them thing like, Do one lesson on a
computer over the month, something as simple as that, maybe they’ll be
doing 3 or 4 lessons a month up on the TV.
 32

Kate also suggested the tips that will have better training result:

If I were to give advice to administrators about what type of training

teacher would need I would approach it by showing teachers how the use
of computers can make their jobs more efficient. For instance, you can do
your grades on the computer, lesson plans, mail merge letters to parents,
how to narrow and refine the search on the internet and find ready-made
lesson plans on just about any subject that they be teaching, and give them
time to explore what types of software that is available in our field that can
benefit kids.

Again we can see that the teachers who use technology to a higher degree give

practical ideas of teacher training. District administrators should take advantage of this

first hand information and design an efficient training program, which at the same time

offers the teachers who already have used technology to higher level more opportunities

for the national level training.

Discussion

In this study, teachers viewed microcomputers as an alternative for reviewing and

reinforcing material in the reading and math curriculum. Drill-and-practice is the major

use of technology except that three other teachers who use technology to a high degree

are also very often able to integrate technology into the curriculum. Educators are also

concerned with how to integrate technology into classroom and the curriculum. Using

computers to handle organization and administration is another way of using technology

and in this study, it is considered to be a higher level of usage, since the teachers, who

use technology to a lower degree, did not implement computers as a tool to organize and

manage their work. In addition, concern was expressed by teachers that technology

tended to impede development of socialization skills in young children. The researcher

also found that the levels of teachers' new curriculum innovativeness is directly related to
 33

their tendency of using technology. In expressing their concerns about computer use,

teachers report that they do not have enough time to carry out computer activities in the

classroom. It is also not surprising that teachers at different levels of computer usage

reported that not having enough computers and not having enough instructional software

were among the major problems associated with using computers in their teaching

experience. Lastly, the researcher found that teachers acknowledged the importance of

inservice training to prepare them to integrate computers into the classroom and the

curriculum. Both higher users and lower users reported that workshops with peers and

hands-on computer work were the most effective training method. Both levels of

computer using teachers need more time and experience with computers.

Contrary to the conclusion made by Woodward and Mathinos (1987, as cited in

Dupagne & Krendl, Spring 1992), that teachers rarely use drill-and-practice programs,

which are viewed as lower cognitive computer application, in this study, the researcher

found that drill-and-practice programs were widely used by the teachers in this western

American elementary school. The primary recommendation emerging from the study is

for schools to invest time and resources in service workshop training for teachers at all

levels of instruction. Such training must be designed to promote better coordination

between teachers and technologist to improve the efficiency of instructional computer

applications. It is clear that teachers always seek help from the technologist, so that it is

wise for school districts to place an educational technologist to assist technology

implementation into curriculum. District administrators should also offer the teachers

who already have used technology to higher level more opportunities for national-level

training. This discussion led to the consideration of how preservice teachers should be
 34

trained in implementing technology. Should the technology be presented as a separate

discipline or should instructional technology be integrated into each subject area? If

technology were integrated into preservice education, it is assumed that when teachers

start their professional teaching, they will have a deep understanding and appreciation for

the role of technology in the curriculum. Further research could be developed to verify

this assumption.

The researcher is able to make two comments concerning methods for integrating

technology into the classroom setting. It is recommended that school districts should

invest time and resources in accreditation workshop training, at times convenient for

teachers, at all levels of instruction and all levels of application concerning technology.

The second recommendation is that instructional technology should be integrated into

each subject area of preservice elementary teachers' education. Both types of training

should review the results of research concerning the question of the

socialization/isolation effects of technology.

 35

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 37

Appendix 1 - Interview Protocol

Appendix 2 - Permission Letters

Appendix 3 - Interview Transcriptions

Appendix 4 - Documents