American Journal of Scientific Research

ISSN 1450-223X Issue 3(2009), pp.26-37

© EuroJournals Publishing, Inc. 2009
http://www.eurojournals.com/ajsr.htm

Self Esteem, Gender and Academic Achievement of

Undergraduate Students

Habibollah. Naderi
Department of Educational Studies, University of Mazandaran
Street of Pasdaran, Babolsar, Iran

Rohani. Abdullah
Corresponding Author Department of Human Development & Family Studies
University Putra Malaysia, Serdang, 43400, Malaysia
Tel: +6038946538

H. Tengku Aizan
Institute of Gerontology, University Putra Malaysia
Serdang, 43300, Malaysia

Jamaluddin. Sharir
Department of Educational Psychology and Counselling
University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

V. Kumar
Department of English, University Putra Malaysia
Serdang 43400, Malaysia
Tel: +60389468733

Abstract

This study examined self-esteem, gender and academic achievement. Participants

(N= 153, 105 = male & 48= female) completed the Persian version of the Rosenberg Self-
Esteem Scale (RSES)(Tevakkoli, 1995). The RSES as a questionnaire test included 10
items. Cumulative grade point average (CGPA) was used to select the participants. Data
were analyzed by multinomial logistic regression and independent sample t-test. The
findings from this study indicate that although self-esteem indicates a strong significant
relationship on academic achievement when gender is controlled (Chi-Square =14.173,
Sig=.007, P<0.01, there is no relationship between self esteem and academic achievement
(Sig=.074, P>0.05). In other words, a significant difference between gender and self-esteem
was observed (Sig=.001, P<0.01).

Keywords: Self-Esteem, Academic Achievement, Gender

1. Introduction
Self –esteem is one of the strongest research topic in psychology (Gebauer, Riketta, Broemer, & Maio,
2008). Researchers have studied self esteem on different factors(Anthony, Wood, & Holmes, 2007;
Self Esteem, Gender and Academic Achievement of Undergraduate Students 27

Barry, Grafeman, Adler, & Pickard, 2007; Denissen, Penke, Schmitt, & van Aken, 2008; Ferreira,
Echevarr‫ي‬a-Guanilo, Rossi, & Dantas, 2007; Guillon, Crocq, & Bailey, 2007; Hair, Renaud, &
Ramsay, 2007; Hayes, Schimel, Faucher, & Williams, 2008; Karagِzoglu, Kahve, Koç, & Adamisoglu,
2008; Lazaratou, Dikeos, Anagnostopoulos, & Soldatos, 2007; LeRouge, Nelson, & Blanton, 2006;
Mukai & Costa, 2005; Myers & Zeigler-Hill, 2008; Penke & Denissen, 2008; Pullmann & Allik, 2008;
Quick & Byrd-Bredbenner, 2008; Rubinstein, 2006; Seo, Ahn, Byun, & Kim, 2007; Traeen & Wang,
2006; Turpin, 2007; Vickery, Sepehri, Evans, & Lee, 2008).
The Iranian students in Malaysian universities from the majority of foreign students in
Malaysia (Habibollah., Rohani., Tengku Aizan, & Jamaluddin, 2008; Naderi, Abdullah, & Tengku
Aizan, 2008). The objective of this study is to explore the levels of self esteem of Iranian students and
to determine whether there are any differences between the variables related to the formation of self-
esteem; because the literature provides consistent evidence that self esteem has the most important
effect /or relationship on academic achievement(Miraei, 2005; PourSina, 2003)

1.2. Concept of Self-Esteem

Research has documented the important role high self- esteem plays in academic achievement, social
and personal responsibility (Redenbach, 1991). For people of all ages, the development of full human
potential is enhanced through high self esteem. High self esteem can begin to develop when the
acceptance of all individuals and their personal and group contributions are recognized and applauded,
especially in a multi-culturally diverse world (Redenback, 1991, p. 25). Self –esteem is the one key
ingredient that affects the level of proficiency in all fields of endeavor. Self-esteem has been correlated
to: job success, school achievement, interpersonal compatibility, and general happiness(Redenbach,
1991).
There are several definitions of self esteem, a number of which we will explore within this
paper.(Malbi & Reasoner, 2000)cited self –esteem can be broadly defined as the overall evaluation of
oneself in either a positive or negative way. It indicates the extent to which an individual believes
himself or herself to be competent and worthy of living. Simply put, self –esteem is essentially one’s
felling of self-competence and self-worth (p.2). Figure .1 illustrates several definitions of self-esteem.
Self-esteem construct is recognized today to be a major factor in learning outcomes(Lawrence,
2000). Research has consistently shown a positive correlation between how people value themselves
and the level of their academic attainments. Those who feel confident, generally achieve more, while
those who lack confidence in themselves achieve less. Students usually have no problem in talking to
the tutor about their literacy difficulties. Once they have learned to trust their tutor, they will often
bring up other problems of a more personal nature. This is not to suggest that tutors become
counselors, but they prepare to listen to students who may wish to confide in them. Whilst the majority
of students are likely to have low self-esteem as a result of feeling inadequate over not being able to
read, write or spell like most others, they may in addition have low self-esteem as a result of others
experiences, probably beginning in childhood(Lawrence, 2000).
There will be countless opportunities for the tutor to begin the process of enhancing self esteem
once they know the origins of these. For instance, knowing that a student has had strong feelings of
inadequacy since childhood over his/her physical appearance would allow the tutor to focus positively
on valuing the student in this direction as well as in relation to progress in literacy (Lawrence, 2000).
Another source of self-esteem is academic achievement. Good academic grades enhance one’s
sense of worthiness and competence. Self- esteem and academic achievement seem to be most highly
related between the years of about seven to fifteen (Malbi & Reasoner, 2000). Some researchers have
suggested that educational success becomes less central to self esteem during late high school years
and the years that follow(Malbi & Reasoner, 2000).
28 Habibollah. Naderi, Rohani. Abdullah, H. Tengku Aizan, Jamaluddin. Sharir and V. Kumar
Figure 1: Some Definitions of Self-Esteem cited(Malbi & Reasoner, 2000)

Nathaniel Branden The disposition to experience oneself as competent

to cope with the basic challenges of life and as worthy
of happiness.

H.S. Sullivan All of those feelings of competence and personal worth

that hold a person together.

D. C. Briggs It is how a person feels about himself. It is his overall

Judgment of himself- how much he likes his particular
person.

Joel Brockner A trait referring to individuals’ degree of liking or

disliking for themselves.

James Battle The perception the individual possesses of his/her own

worth.

Denis Waitley It is that deep-down, inside-the-skin feeling of your

own worth.

A. Bandura The sense of personal worth and competence that persons

Associate with their self-concepts.

1.3. Self –Esteem and Academic Achievement

The relationships between self-esteem and academic achievement have received much attention.
(Maruyama, Rubin, & Kingsbury, 1981). Some researchers investigated the relationship between self
esteem and academic achievement and found that high self esteem facilitates academic achievement.
Only a limited correlation was revealed between self-esteem and academic achievement(Pullmann &
Allik, 2008). Several recent studies have attempted to investigate the direct relationship between self –
esteem and academic achievement. According to the studies (Pullmann & Allik, 2008) low general self
esteem does not necessarily signal a poor academic achievement. Their result shows that low (not high)
general self esteem is a significant predictor of superior school performance. However, research
finding from(Marsh & O’Mara, 2008) suggested that prior self-esteem has small positive effect on
subsequent educational attainment
Researchers have also found no significant causal influence between self esteem and academic
achievement.(Bachman & O'Malley, 1977) examined longitudinal data utilizing a priori model relating
self esteem and achievement that focused on the influence of self esteem at high school on the
educational achievement of young males. High school self esteem was found to exert no significant
causal influence on educational achievement. Another study has shown no significant relationship
existed between self esteem and achievement analyzed data (Maruyama et al., 1981) was longitudinal,
thereby allowing better specification of interrelations between self esteem and achievement.
(Maruyama et al., 1981)’s study reveals that self –esteem and achievement were not “causally” related
to each other.
Self Esteem, Gender and Academic Achievement of Undergraduate Students 29

1.4. Self-Esteem and Gender

Gender, is generally asserted to impact upon the growth, demonstration and manifestation of self-
esteem. Several researchers studied self esteem and gender among students. There is a significant
difference in self esteem between males and females(SarAbadaniTafreshi, 2006) . (Hossaini, 2002),
however, gained a different result in his research. Her research entitled ’’ Forecasting between self-
esteem, parenting and gender among pre-university of students in Shiraz’’ included 240 students.
Cowper Smiths self esteem test was used for data collection. The result shows that gender is not a
predictor of self -esteem of pre-university of students.
However, (Zareh, 1994) who studied the relationship between achievement of motivation, self-
esteem and gender among high school of students found that there is significant relationship between
self esteem and gender. 150 students (75 boys and 75 girls) were classified based on random method.
The research data were collected through Cowper Smeit’s questionnaire of self esteem.

1.5. Previous Research in Iran

Some research has been reported on the relationship between self esteem and academic achievement
among the students in Iran. (Zeinvand, 2006) studied the relation between self esteem, social support
and student’s educational progression in a high school in Dareh Shar, a city in Iran. 72 students (37
boys and 35 girls) were classified based random method. The research data were collected through
Cowper Smeit’s questionnaire of self esteem. The data analysis showed no significantly relationship
between self esteem and academic achievement. However, the research depicted the significant
differences in boy and girls. The t test revealed that self esteem is more in boys than in girls.
It has been reported that there is a significant difference in self esteem between male and
women(SarAbadaniTafreshi, 2006). (Miraei, 2005) did a research entitled ‘’the result shows that the
rate of relation between self esteem and academic achievement. Finding has shown no significant
difference. Additionally, (Emamzadeh, 2004) did a research in order to compare the social skills and
self esteem and academic achievement among 261 students (boys and girls) in Orumieyeh city. Self
Esteem test (Popo) and Mathmatics test were used to evaluate through descriptive statistic methods and
t- test. The result shows that there was no significant relationship between self esteem and academic
achievement.
A recent meta-analyze study (PourSina, 2003) reported differing results. In this research,
entitled ‘’ the analysis of self esteem depression and academic achievement of boy students in Tehran’’
included 192 secondary school students. Cowper Smiths self esteem test was used for data collection
and CGPA for the academic achievement. The result shows that there is a significant difference among
the students. In another investigation, (Amini, 2004) conducted a research in order to study the role of
self efficiency, self regular and self esteem in high school students’ academic achievement. 500
students (300 girls and 200 boys) participated in this study in ShareKord. The result shows both
positive and significant relationship between self esteem and academic achievement.
Additionally, (Mefteh, 2002) also conducted the same study on 378 students (boys and girls) in
secondary school based on randomly sample through Cowper Smiths of self esteem questionnaire. This
research demonstrates that there is a significant relationship between self esteem and the students’
CGPA.

1.6. Purpose of the Study

The literature review shows that investigations examining determinants of academic achievement and
gender have concentrated on the relative significance of self esteem. This study differs from earlier
studies, especially those conducted in Iran; in that it focuses on different instruments, and student and
gender related factors that affect the cumulative grade point average of Malaysian universities.
The major objective of this study was to determine if there is a relationship between self esteem
and academic achievement. The present study will provide a better estimate of the true association
30 Habibollah. Naderi, Rohani. Abdullah, H. Tengku Aizan, Jamaluddin. Sharir and V. Kumar

between self esteem and academic achievement by the Persian version of the Rosenberg Self-Esteem
Scale (RSES)(Tevakkoli, 1995) and cumulative grade point average (CGPA), applied to undergraduate
students. We posited that undergraduate students will show the relationship between self-esteem and
academic achievement based on the following hypothesis self esteem, as perceived by undergraduate
students will be correlated academic achievement with self-esteem of test and CGPA’students.
1. There is no significant difference in self-esteem between males and females.

2. Research Method
2.1. Sample
One hundred and fifty three Iranian undergraduate students in Malaysian Universities (N= 48 (31.4%)
females and N=103 (68.6%) males) were recruited as respondents in this study. Their ages ranged from
18 -27 years old for females and 19-27 years old for males.

2.2. Measures
2.2.1. Cumulative Grade Point Average (CGPA)
For the purposes of this study, Academic achievement was measured through the Cumulative Grade
point Average (CGPA), which was computed based on participants’ grades of principal subjects. The
CGPA is calculated by dividing the total amount of grade points earned by the total amount of credit
hours attempted. The student’s academic achievement used based on their mid year examination result.
It is the aggregate or the total grade points in the mid year examination. In this examination, each
university subject is graded along one hundred (or four)-point scale, the best grade point being one
hundred (or four) and the lowest being zero. There is a four-mark grading system in Malaysian
universities ranging from 1 (very weak) to 4 (very good) figure2.

Figure 2: CGPA

Cumulative Grade Point Average (CGPA)

Result Level

3.51-4.0 4
3.1- 3.5 3
2.51- 3.0 2
0 – 2.5 1

2.2.2. Self-Esteem
Self-esteem was measured by the Persian version of the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale
(RSES)(Tevakkoli, 1995). Items of the RSES were answered on a 4-point scale ranging from 1
(strongly disagree) to 4 (strongly agree). (Tevakkoli, 1995) also has examined the interval reliabilities
and validity of Persian version of the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSES).

2.3. Procedure
Undergraduate students participated in this study. The research questions posed for the study required
identifying and analyzing the distributions and correlations of certain General self-esteem measured by
the Persian version of the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSES)(Tevakkoli, 1995) test best addressed
in the form of a descriptive study. They were assessed by the result of administration office of
universities (described below), divided by gender, and calculated by total scores and subscales. The
Self Esteem, Gender and Academic Achievement of Undergraduate Students 31

women samples (18-27 years) and men (19-27years) were selected during the regular course time.
Instructions were given written and oral for all participants, and they were ready to answer the
upcoming questions in the class. Since multiple significance tests were conducted, the data were
analyzed by independent sample t-test and multinomial logistic regression. The participants replied the
tests and were free to anonymous. Students received no rewards but they were given the results in the
form of a self- referenced level of abilities. Scores for self-esteem scale’s total score were calculated by
the SPSS statistical program.

3. Results
3.1. Independent Samples t-test
Table 1 shows the Independent Samples t-test for males and females on scores for self-esteem. These
findings indicate that, there are significant gender differences in self-esteem (P=0.001<0.01).

Table 1: Independent Samples t-test

Males (n= 105) Females (n=48)

t* Sig (2-Tailed)
M SD M SD
Self-Esteem Score 28.28 3.04 29.98 2.66 -3.34 001
*P<0.01

3.2. Multinomial Logistic Regression

Multinomial logistic regression is used to analyze the relationships between a non-metric dependent
variable and metric or dichotomous independent variables. Multinomial logistic regression is the
extension for the binary of logistic regression when the categorical dependent outcome has more than
two levels(Chan.YH, 2004, 2005).

Table 2: Case processing summary: Self-Esteem & Gender

Case Processing Summary

N Marginal Percentage
CGPA
1 19 12.4%
2 41 26.8%
3 61 39.9%
4 32 20.9%
Gender
Male 105 68.6
Female 48 31.4
Valid 153 100.0
Missing 0
Subpopulation 26a
a. The dependent variable has only one value observed in 9(34.6%) subpopulations.

Multinomial logistic regression requires that the minimum ratio of valid cases to independent
variables be at least 10 to 1. The ratio of valid cases (153) to number of independent variables (4) was
39.9 to 1, which was equal to or greater than the minimum ratio. The requirement for a minimum ratio
of cases to independent variables was satisfied. The preferred ratio of valid cases to independent
variables is 20 to 1. The ratio of 39.9 to 1 was equal to or greater than the preferred ratio. So the
preferred ratio of cases to independent variables was satisfied.
The percentage of cases in each group defined by the dependent variable (CGPA) is found in
the table 2. This table shows there are no zero frequencies in each of the subpopulation and also no
warning-message was displayed. According this table, the proportional by chance accuracy rate was
32 Habibollah. Naderi, Rohani. Abdullah, H. Tengku Aizan, Jamaluddin. Sharir and V. Kumar

computed by calculating the proportion of cases for each group based on the number of cases in each
group in the 'Case Processing Summary', and then squaring and summing the proportion of cases in
each group (0.124² + 0.268² + 0.399² + 0.2092= 0.453).The benchmark that we will use to characterize
a multinomial logistic regression model as useful is a 25% improvement over the rate of accuracy
achievable by chance alone. So the proportional by chance accuracy criteria is 36.2% (1.25 x 29% =
36.2%).

Table 3: Classification

Predict
Observed
1 2 3 4 Percent Correct
1 0 8 11 0 0%
2 0 10 31 0 24.4%
3 1 12 48 0 78.7%
4 0 10 22 0 .0%
Overall Percentage .7% 26.1% 73.2% 0 37.9%

Table 3. shows comparing accuracy rates. To characterize model as useful for this study, we
compare the overall percentage accuracy rate produced by SPSS at the last step in which variables are
entered to 25% more than the proportional by chance accuracy. (Note: SPSS does not compute a cross-
validated accuracy rate for multinomial logistic regression). The classification accuracy rate was 37.7%
which was greater than or equal to the proportional by chance accuracy criteria of 36.2% (1.25 x 29%
= 36.2%). So the criteria for classification accuracy is satisfied in this study.

Table 4: Likelihood Ratio Tests

Effect -2 Log Likelihood of Reduced Model Chi-Square df Sig

Interact 1.75a .000 0
Self-Esteem 182.50 6.94 3 .074
Gender 184.23 8.67 3 .034
The chi-square statistic is the difference in - 2 log-likelihoods between the final model and a reduced model. The reduced model is formed by omitting an
effect from the final model. The null hypothesis is that all parameters of that effect are 0.
a. This reduced model is equivalent to the final model because omitting the effect dose not increases the degrees of freedom.

The overall test of relationship among the independent variables and groups defined by the
dependent is based on the reduction in the likelihood values for a model which does not contain any
independent variables and the model that contains the independent variables. The Likelihood ratio test
(Table 4) shows the contribution of each variable to the model – Gender had a significant (p<0.05)
contribution but no Self-Esteem. In this study, there is a statistically significant relationship between
the independent variable GENDER and the dependent variable CGPA (0.034 < 0.05). This difference
in likelihood follows a chi-square distribution, and is referred to as the model chi-square.

Table 5: Model Fitting Information

-2 Log Likelihood Chi-Square df Sig

Model
Intercept only 145.808
Final 131.635 14.173 4 .007

The presence of a relationship between the dependent variable and combination of independent
variables is based on the statistical significance of the final model chi-square in the SPSS table titled
"Model Fitting Information"(table.5). In this analysis, the probability of the model chi-square (14.173)
was 0.007, less than to the level of significance of 0.05. The null hypothesis that there was no
difference between the model without independent (CGPA) variable and the model with independent
Self Esteem, Gender and Academic Achievement of Undergraduate Students 33

(Gender and Self-Esteem) variables was rejected. The existence of a relationship between self-esteem,
gender and CGPA was supported.

Table 6: Parameter estimates: Gender + Self-Esteem

CGPAa B Std.Error Wald df Sig Exp (B)

Intercept 3.34 3.07 1.18 1 .277
Self-Esteem -.10 .103 .939 1 .333 .905
1
Y2=1c -1.53 .676 5.178 1 .023 .215
Y2= 2c 0b 0
Intercept .783 2.44 .102 1 .749
Self-Esteem -.017 .080 .043 1 .835 .983
2
Y2=1c -.077 .615 .016 1 .900 .926
Y2=2c 0b 0
Intercept -2.11 2.402 .778 1 .378
Self-Esteem .118 .079 2.233 1 .135 1.125
3
Y2=1c -.923 .537 2.953 1 .086 .397
Y2=2c 0b 0
a. The reference category is: 4
b. This parameter is set to zero because it is redundant.
c. Male= (Y2=1), Female= (Y2=2)

SPSS analysis identifies the comparisons it makes for groups defined by the dependent variable
in the table of ‘Parameter Estimates,’ using either the value codes or the value labels, depending on the
options settings for pivot table labeling. The reference category is identified in the footnote to the table.
The reference category plays the same role in multinomial logistic regression that it plays in the
dummy-coding of a nominal variable: it is the category that would be coded with zeros for all of the
dummy-coded variables that all other categories are interpreted against (table 6). According this table
the independent variable gender (male) is significant in distinguishing category 1 of the dependent
variable from category 4 of the dependent variable (0.023 < 0.05). However, gender (male) does not
differentiate the category 3 of the dependent variable from 4 of the reference group (0.086 > 0.05).
Multicollinearity in the multinomial logistic regression solution also is detected by examining
the standard errors for the b coefficients. A standard error larger than 2.0 indicates numerical problems,
such as multicollinearity among the independent variables, zero cells for a dummy-coded independent
variable because all of the subjects have the same value for the variable, and 'complete separation'
whereby the two groups in the dependent event variable can be perfectly separated by scores on one of
the independent variables. Analyses that indicate numerical problems should not be interpreted. Table
6 shows, none of the independent variables in this analysis had a standard error larger than 2.0. (This
study, we are indifferent in the standard errors associated with the intercept.)

4. Discussion
4.1. Review of Major Findings
In view of the fact that early initiation to self-esteem and gender is very predictive of later use
(Hossaini, 2002; PourSina, 2003; SarAbadaniTafreshi, 2006), it is necessary to focus on the possible
antecedents of a similar academic achievement.The main focus in this study was on the role of self-
esteem and gender in academic achievement of undergraduate students. We assumed self-esteem as a
possibility reason for high academic achievement (CGPA), and that there is no significant difference in
self-esteem between male and female.
The main finding of the current study is that although self-esteem and gender (the combination
of independent variables) predicts cumulative grade point average (CGPA), there was no significant
relationship between self esteem and academic achievement. According to multinomial logistic
regression of result, we found a statistically significant overall relationship between the combination of
34 Habibollah. Naderi, Rohani. Abdullah, H. Tengku Aizan, Jamaluddin. Sharir and V. Kumar

independent variables (self-esteem &gender) and the dependent variable (CGPA). However, the
individual relationship between total self-esteem and academic achievement was not statistically
significant.
This is definitely not the first statement that seems to be self-contradictory of self-esteem [see
(Marsh & O’Mara, 2008; Miraei, 2005; Pullmann & Allik, 2008)]. Self-esteem among Iranian students
has been considered for academic achievement. Nevertheless, regular reviews have shown that neither
Iranian students nor students living in the other countries have the necessary high self esteem for
higher academic achievement (Emamzadeh, 2004; Pullmann & Allik, 2008). Despite this, Iranian
students have higher academic achievement and they typically have a higher self-esteem(Mefteh,
2002).
However, (Pullmann & Allik, 2008) cited “there are two might be lines of explanation why low
general self-esteem does not necessarily signal a poor academic performance and these two lines need
not be incompatible with each other. (1) it is possible that cognitively better developed and
academically successful students have a more critical outlook on themselves. (2) students with more
modest academic abilities compensate their academic deficiency by elevating their general self-
esteem”.
The statistical significance of the relationship between total self-esteem and gender exploration
is based on the statistical significance of the chi-square statistic. For this relationship, the probability of
the chi-square statistic (8.677) was 0.034, less than or equal to the level of significance of 0.05. The
existence of a relationship between total self-esteem and gender exploration was supported. As for
gender differences, as predicted, females in self-esteem scored higher than males. This findings
indicate that, there are significant gender differences in the self-esteem (P=0.001<0.01). This study
showed gender has the strongest unique effect on student f self-esteem .This result is consistent with
other studies that also indicated gender differences in the self-esteem.
The findings from this study have important implications for those students and others
(postgraduate, diploma, high school) students. known, (SarAbadaniTafreshi, 2006) examination that
improvement of self-esteem is secondary school to university, it is disquieting to review in the findings
that no improvement in self-esteem scores was studied, indeed, there was a non-significant differences
/related in self-esteem scores other variables (age , culture and nations). As a result, it seems
appropriate to determine in future follow a line of investigation whether a comparable finding is
observed somewhere else concerning gender and self-esteem in Iran. In this study, it was further
observed that females had significantly higher self-esteem scores than male among students. This study
therefore supplement to the interpretation of(Zareh, 1994) with notifying an important characteristic
that may be implicated gender-significant differences/related in self-esteem.
According to the study(Pullmann & Allik, 2008), there are some probable lines of description
why low general self esteem does not essentially signal a poor academic achievement. (1) having
achieved academically success, students have a more critical viewpoint on their persons. (2) Students
with additional limited academic capacities compensate their academic lack by uplifting their general
esteem. However, it is surprising that, in the multinomial logistic regression models, self esteem was
not significantly related to academic achievement. One would have expected that eventual weight
problems would have contributed to how the students felt about themselves. Furthermore, self-esteem
and academic achievement might as well be confounders to each other.

4.2. Limitations
Like all studies, the present study has several limitations. In this study only one demographic variable
(gender) were examined. However, there are several demographic that could be affect the preference
for the relationship between self esteem and academic achievement which should be studied in the
future: these variables include educational parents educational background, income, age and grade of
the study. One of the limited this study is only at a given time data were used, self-esteem assessments
depended exclusively on self-report and CGPA was appraised retroactively, this not at this time when
Self Esteem, Gender and Academic Achievement of Undergraduate Students 35

estimations on self-esteem were asked but mainly based on the cumulative grade point average
(CGPA). Hence, at all cross-sectional researches similar to this one the findings should be interpreted
with caution.

4.3. Conclusion and Implication

To concluded, this study examined the relationship of gender and self-esteem variables in academic
achievement of undergraduate students. Additional, the research showed differences in relationships by
gender of the respondent. Identifying the existence of relationship between self-esteem, gender and
academic achievement and also gender significantly difference in self-esteem can help investigators
avoid deceptive analysis and interpretations of scales in academic achievement and self-esteem are
employed.
The findings from this study has important implications for those students and others
(postgraduate, diploma, high school) students. known, (SarAbadaniTafreshi, 2006) examination that
improvement of self-esteem is secondary school to university, it is disquieting to review in the findings
that no improvement in self-esteem scores was studied, indeed, there was a non-significant differences
/related in self-esteem scores other variables (age , culture and nations). As a result, it seems
appropriate to determine in future follow a line of investigation whether a comparable finding is
observed somewhere else concerning gender and self-esteem in Iran. However, future studies should
effort to better separate discrete abilities and measure their significantly-relation to academic
achievement

Acknowledgement
We thank administration officers at University Putra Malaysia, University Malay, University
Multimedia, University Lim KokWing , University Tenga Malaysia and University APIT for giving us
information about Iranian students at their Universities. We also appreciate Iranian Undergraduate
students for participating in this research which allowed us to collect the necessary data for the PhD
study.

References
[1] Amini, S. (2004). The role of self efficiency, self regular and self esteem in high school
students’ academic achievement. Tarbiat Moallem Tehran, Shareh Kord,Iran.
[2] Anthony, D. B., Wood, J. V., & Holmes, J. G. (2007). Testing sociometer theory: Self-esteem
and the importance of acceptance for social decision-making. Journal of Experimental Social
Psychology, 43(3), 425-432.
[3] Bachman, J. G., & O'Malley, P. M. (1977). Self-esteem in young men: A longitudinal analysis
of the impact of educational and occupational attainment. Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology 35, 365- 380.
[4] Barry, C. T., Grafeman, S. J., Adler, K. K., & Pickard, J. D. (2007). The relations among
narcissism, self-esteem, and delinquency in a sample of at-risk adolescents. Journal of
Adolescence, 30(6), 933-942.
[5] Chan.YH. (2004). Biostatistics 202. Logistic regression analysis. Singapore Med Journal, 45,
53-149.
[6] Chan.YH. (2005). Biostatistics 203. Logistic regression analysis. Singapore Med Journal,
46(6), 259-269.
[7] Denissen, J. J. A., Penke, L., Schmitt, D. P., & van Aken, M. A. G. (2008). Self-Esteem
Reactions to Social Interactions: Evidence for Sociometer Mechanisms Across Days, People,
and Nations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 95(1), 181-196.
36 Habibollah. Naderi, Rohani. Abdullah, H. Tengku Aizan, Jamaluddin. Sharir and V. Kumar

[8] Emamzadeh, Z. M. (2004). To compare the social skills and self esteem and academic
achievement among students in Ormieyeh city. University Tarbiat Moallem, Tehran,Iran.
[9] Ferreira, E., Echevarr‫ي‬a-Guanilo, M. E., Rossi, L. A., & Dantas, R. A. S. (2007). Self-esteem
in adult burn victims. Burns, 33(1, Supplement 1), S114-S114.
[10] Gebauer, J. E., Riketta, M., Broemer, P., & Maio, G. R. (2008). "How much do you like your
name?" An implicit measure of global self-esteem. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology,
44(5), 1346-1354.
[11] Guillon, M.-S., Crocq, M.-A., & Bailey, P. E. (2007). Nicotine dependence and self-esteem in
adolescents with mental disorders. Addictive Behaviors, 32(4), 758-764.
[12] Habibollah., N., Rohani., A., Tengku Aizan, H., & Jamaluddin, S. V., K, Mallan. (2008).
Gender Differences in Creative Perceptions of Undergraduate Students. Journal of Applied
Sciences, In Press,.
[13] Hair, M., Renaud, K. V., & Ramsay, J. (2007). The influence of self-esteem and locus of
control on perceived email-related stress. Computers in Human Behavior, 23(6), 2791-2803.
[14] Hayes, J., Schimel, J., Faucher, E. H., & Williams, T. J. (2008). Evidence for the DTA
hypothesis II: Threatening self-esteem increases death-thought accessibility. Journal of
Experimental Social Psychology, 44(3), 600-613.
[15] Hossaini, S. M. (2002). Forecasting between self-esteem, parenting and gender among pre-
university of students in Shiraz. University of Shiraz, Shiraz, Iran.
[16] Karagِzoglu, S., Kahve, E., Koç, ‫ض‬., & Adamisoglu, D. (2008). Self esteem and assertiveness
of final year Turkish university students. Nurse Education Today, 28(5), 641-649.
[17] Lawrence, D. (2000). Building self-esteem with adult learners. California.
[18] Lazaratou, H., Dikeos, D. G., Anagnostopoulos, D. C., & Soldatos, C. R. (2007). Depression
and self-esteem in adolescence:a study of senior high school students in Greece. European
Psychiatry, 22(Supplement 1), S235-S235.
[19] LeRouge, C., Nelson, A., & Blanton, J. E. (2006). The impact of role stress fit and self-esteem
on the job attitudes of IT professionals. Information & Management, 43(8), 928-938.
[20] Malbi, R. S., & Reasoner, R. W. (2000). Self-Esteem, Enhancing. Kuala Lumpur: Self-Esteem
Seminars Sdn. Bhd.
[21] Marsh, H. W., & O’Mara, A. (2008). Reciprocal effects between academic self-concept, self-
esteem, achievement, and attainment over seven adolescent years: Unidimensional and
multidimensional perspectives of self-concept. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 34,
542–552.
[22] Maruyama, G. M., Rubin, R. A., & Kingsbury, G. G. (1981). Self-esteem and educational
achievement: Independent constructs with a common cause? Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology, 40(5), 962-975.
[23] Mefteh, S. (2002). The relationships between timidness (shyness), self esteem and academic
achievement among middle of schools’ students. University of Tarbiyat Moallem, Tehran, Iran.
[24] Miraei, R. (2005). The relationship between Self esteem, Self Concept and Academic
Achievement among Junior of High School 'Students. University of Tarbiat Moallem, Tehran,
Iran.
[25] Mukai, A., & Costa, J. (2005). Poster 223: The Effect of Modafinil on Self-Esteem in Patients
With Spinal Cord Injury: A Report of 2 Cases. Archives of Physical Medicine and
Rehabilitation, 86(9), e43-e43.
[26] Myers, E. M., & Zeigler-Hill, V. (2008). No shades of gray: Splitting and self-esteem
instability. Personality and Individual Differences, 45(2), 139-145.
[27] Naderi, H., Abdullah, R., & Tengku Aizan, H. (2008). Male Versus Female Intelligence among
Undergraduate Students: Does Gender Matter? Asian Journal of Scientific Research, In Press,
online first.
Self Esteem, Gender and Academic Achievement of Undergraduate Students 37

[28] Penke, L., & Denissen, J. J. A. (2008). Sex differences and lifestyle-dependent shifts in the
attunement of self-esteem to self-perceived mate value: Hints to an adaptive mechanism?
Journal of Research in Personality, 42(4), 1123-1129.
[29] PourSina, M. (2003). The analysis of self esteem depression and academic achievement of boy
students in Tehran. University of Tarbiat Moallem, Tehran,Iran.
[30] Pullmann, H., & Allik, J. (2008). Relations of academic and general self-esteem to school
achievement. Personality and Individual Differences, 45(6), 559-564.
[31] Quick, V., & Byrd-Bredbenner, C. (2008). Effect of Photographs of Thin and Heavy Fashion
Models on Body Satisfaction and Self-Esteem in Young Women. Journal of the American
Dietetic Association, 108(9, Supplement 1), A45-A45.
[32] Redenbach, S. (1991). Self-Esteem, The Necessary Ingredient for Success. USA: Esteem
Seminar Programs and Publications.
[33] Rubinstein, G. (2006). The big five and self-esteem among overweight dieting and non-dieting
women. Eating Behaviors, 7(4), 355-361.
[34] SarAbadaniTafreshi, L. (2006). The relationship between academic achievement, Self-Esteem
and Gender with Anxity of Computer among Postgraduate of Students in University of
Tabeiyat Moallem Tehran. University of Tabeiyat Moalem, Theran,Iran.
[35] Seo, J.-M., Ahn, S., Byun, E.-K., & Kim, C.-K. (2007). Social Skills Training as Nursing
Intervention to Improve the Social Skills and Self-Esteem of Inpatients with Chronic
Schizophrenia. Archives of Psychiatric Nursing, 21(6), 317-326.
[36] Tevakkoli, M. (1995). Effecting Intervention program on Weight reduction and Self-Esteem
among Students. University of Tabeyat Modares, Tehran,Iran.
[37] Traeen, B., & Wang, C. E. (2006). Perceived gender attribution, self-esteem, and general self-
efficacy in female horseback riders. Journal of Equine Veterinary Science, 26(10), 439-444.
[38] Turpin, D. L. (2007). Orthodontic treatment and self-esteem. American Journal of Orthodontics
and Dentofacial Orthopedics, 131(5), 571-572.
[39] Vickery, C. D., Sepehri, A., Evans, C. C., & Lee, J. E. (2008). The Association of Level and
Stability of Self-Esteem and Depressive Symptoms in the Acute Inpatient Stroke Rehabilitation
Setting. Rehabilitation Psychology, 53(2), 171-179.
[40] Zareh, H. (1994). The relationships between achievement of motivation, self-esteem and gender
among high school of students. University of Tarbiyat Moalem, Tehran, Iran.
[41] Zeinvand, A. (2006). Relationships between self esteem, social support and student’s
educational progression in a high school in Dareh Shar city in Iran. University of Tabiat
Moallem, Theran, Iran.