Some beautiful observation for the system of linear equations

• If α1, α2….αn and β1….βn are the solution of a system of linear equation then
((1-t)α1 + t β1 ,……, (1-t)αn + t βn ) will also be a solution.
• Let
a b 
A=  and suppose λ1 and λ2 are the root of the equation
c d 
x 2 − ( a + d )x + ad − bc = 0
Let k n be defined as
n
k n = ∑λ1
n −i
λ2 i −1 then it also can be proved that k n can be presented as
i =1

λ1n − λn2
kn = if λ1 ≠ λ2 and nλ1n −1 if λ1 = λ2 and the relationsh ip between A and k n is
λ1 − λ2
A n = k n A − λ1 λ2 k n −1 I 2
Conclusion :
If a series can be represente d as
x n +1  n  x1 
 x  = A x  then its easy to determine x n in terms of x1 and x 0 by following below steps
 n   0
1. Determine roots λ1 and λ2 of equation x 2 − ( a + d )x + ad − bc = 0
λ1n − λn2
2. Determine k n = if λ1 ≠ λ2 and nλ1n −1 if λ1 = λ2
λ1 − λ2
e f
3. Determine A n = k n A − λ1λ2 k n −1 I 2 let A n =  then x n can be given as
g h

x n = gx 1 + hx 0
As an example by above method the nth term of Fibonacci series easily can be
determined as (I never thought the solution of Fibonacci series can be given so
easily and hence the data encryptor based on the series can be achieved)
1  1 − 5  
n n

kn = 

1+ 5 
 −   where k 0 = 0 and k1 = 1
5  2   2  
    
• For any square Matrix with the below condition:
A + A t = I n , if A is of size n x n
Then it can be proved that A is row equivalent to I n for example
1 a b
− a 1 c
  is row equivalnt to I 3

− b −c 1

• For the system of linear equation AX=B, AtAX=AtB is called corresponding normal
equation and any solution of this normal equation is called least square solution. The
normal equations are always consistent.
• Any matrix A if pre multiplied by a diagonal matrix results in matrix whose rows are
the rows of the matrix A multiplied by corresponding diagonal element of diagonal
matrix. And if matrix A is post multiplied by a diagonal matrix the resultant matrix
will be matrix A with all column multiplied by corresponding elements of diagonal
matrix. For example
d1 0 a b  d1a d1b 
 0 d 2c =
  d 
 d 2c d 2d 
a b d1 0  d1a d 2b 
c d  = 
  0 d 2 d1c d 2d 

• A matrix is called Markov matrix if all its elements are non-negative and sum of the
column elements are 1 for example
a b
c is called Markov matrix if a, b, c and d is positive and a + c = b + d = 1
 d

a b  b 1 
If A =   is markov matrix and A ≠ I 2 and P =   then P is non - singular and
c d  c −1
1 0 
P -1 AP =   also
0 a + d −1
1 b b 0 1
An → as n → ∞, if A ≠ 
b +c 
c

c 1 0
