Part 1: Introduction

A Geographic Information System (GIS) is a computer system that provides

geographic information to support decision making. Similar to other
information systems, it offers functions to input, manage, retrieve, analyze,
and output data.

A GIS is unique in that geographic data are rather different from traditional
data used in business and similar applications. Most geographic data are
multidimensional. For example, it takes at least two coordinates to specify a
location. When height is involved, a point becomes three dimensional.
Moreover, geographic objects might change with time. The addition of this
temporal parameter makes geographic objects four dimensional.

The unique characteristics of geographic data require specialized functions

which are not normally provided by traditional Database Management
Systems (DBMS). Among them are cartographic functions, geographic
analysis, and geographic modeling.

Cartographic functions are important to human interface design in a GIS. We

often interact with a GIS through a map display and visualize geographic
data in graphic forms.
Geographic analyses, such as finding the quickest route from one city to
another, are more complex than most of the statistical functions found in
DBMS.

Geographic modeling, the ultimate tool in supporting decision making by

allowing us to simulate real world situations, is highly specialized. This kind
of modeling, such as predicting the effect of an oil spill, is particularly
useful when a corresponding real life undertaking is prohibitively expensive
or risky.

Although GIS are very different from DBMS, data management is an

important module of a GIS since the operation of an information system
depends heavily on the availability of data. Hence many GIS, such as
Arc/Info, Intergraph, Vision and CARIS do incorporate off-the-shelf DBMS
as part of their systems. This is mainly to reduce the development cost of the
GIS software.

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Part 1: Introduction

A GIS is composed of modules to manage, process, analyze, and model

geographic data.

Data Management: This module organizes data in the database and

retrieves them from the database for use in other modules. It has the
following subcomponents.

Organization: Data are organized to maximize

efficiency and minimize storage space. A collection
of related data collected with a purpose and serving
a specific application is called a database.
Geographic databases, particularly those of national
coverages, are often very large. Hence the demand
for efficient data storage on a GIS is particularly
stringent.

Retrieval: Data are retrieved from the database for

use in other operations. A retrieval is invoked by the
user entering search conditions that could include
spatial or non-spatial components. When we search
for all properties for sale within one kilometre of a
certain school, we are using a spatial condition
"within one kilometre" and a non-spatial condition
"properties for sale". Depending on the interface
used, spatial conditions could be entered
graphically. For instance, to specify the condition
"within one kilometre", the user might be asked to
draw a circle of one-kilometre radius over the
display. Non-spatial conditions are entered as text
or numbers.

Input and conversion: Data are converted to a digital form that can be
stored and processed by computers. Some land surveying instruments record
data in digital form. If we collect data from aerial photographs, satellite
imageries, and existing maps, special equipment has to be used to convert
analogue graphics to digital data. Data can also be imported from other
systems, often requiring the help of a format converter to make it compatible
with data in your system.

Processing: Data are updated, corrected, and modified to suit different

applications. Common geographic processing includes scale changes, map
projection changes, clipping, and cartographic enhancements.

Analysis and modeling: Analytical and statistical operations are performed

on data to derive new information; present and future situations are modeled
and simulated to support decision making. There is such a wide variety of
geographic analysis and modeling functions that no GIS can yet support all

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Part 1: Introduction

of them. As a result, many of the more specialized functions must be

custom-built into a GIS by the user.

Output: Results of the operations are displayed or exported to another

system. Examples of output are graphic displays, text reports, and digital
files. The examples below (shown from left to right) illustrate a graphic
output on a terminal or paper, a text report, and a digital file.

Data: Data are a very important element because without them a GIS is like
a car without fuel. The flow of data through the GIS software, with an
example given for each module, is shown below.

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