Igneous rocks Página 1 de 13

Printed from AccessScience @ McGraw-Hill (www.AccessScience.com).

Copyright ©2000, 2001, 2002 The McGraw-Hill Companies. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of
Use as given at the website.

Earth Science: Mineralogy and petrology

Igneous rocks

hose rocks which have congealed from a molten mass. They may be composed of crystals or glass or
both, depending on the conditions of formation. The molten matter from which they come is called
magma; where erupted to the surface, it is commonly known as lava. Solidification of the hot rock
melt occurs in response to loss of heat. Generated at depth the magma tends to rise. It commonly breaks
through the Earth's crust and spills out on the Earth's surface or ocean floor to form volcanic or extrusive
rocks. At the surface where cooling is rapid, fine-grained or glassy rocks are formed.

Where unable to reach the surface, magma cools more slowly, insulated by the overlying rocks; and a
coarser texture develops. The resulting igneous rocks appear intrusive relative to adjacent rocks. In
general, deeply formed (plutonic) rocks display the coarsest texture. Igneous rocks formed at shallow
depths (hypabyssal) display features somewhat intermediate between those of volcanic and plutonic types.
See also: Magma; Pluton; Volcano; Volcanology

Textures

Texture refers to the mutual relation of the rock constituents within a uniform aggregate. It is dependent
upon the relative amounts of crystalline and amorphous (glassy) matter as well as the size, shape, and
arrangement of the constituents.

Rock textures are highly significant; they shed light on the problem of rock genesis, and tell much about
the conditions and environment under which the rock formed.

Crystallinity

This property expresses the proportion of crystalline to amorphous material in an igneous rock. Most
igneous rocks, such as granite, are composed entirely of crystalline material and are called holocrystalline.
Entirely glassy, or holohyaline, rocks such as obsidian are extremely rare. Many rocks such as rhyolite or
vitrophyre contain both glass and crystals and are called hypocrystalline or hypohyaline.

Glass may be considered an amorphous solid with no systematic arrangement of its constituent atoms.
Crystals form as the temperature of a magma falls and atoms begin to arrange themselves into orderly,
repetitive groups. With rapid cooling there may be no opportunity for crystals to develop, and a magma will
congeal as glass.

Granularity or grain size

In igneous rocks grain size ranges widely and depends in large part upon rate of cooling. Rocks are
phaneric or phanerocrystalline if their constituent mineral grains can be distinguished as individual entities
by the naked eye. All other igneous rocks are aphanitic.

Phaneritic rocks are divided on the basis of their average grain diameter as follows: fine-grained, grains
less than 0.04 in. (1 mm); medium-grained, grains 0.04-0.2 in. (1-5 mm); coarse-grained, grains 0.2-1.2
in. (5-30 mm); very coarse-grained (pegmatitic), grains more than 1.2 in. (3 cm).

Aphanitic rocks are microcrystalline if individual constituents can be distinguished only with the microscope.
They are cryptocrystalline if constituents are submicroscopically crystalline. Dominantly glassy rocks are

http://www.metrostate.edu/cgi-bin/troxy/lproxy.cgi/URL-www.accessscience.com/server... 11/06/2003
Igneous rocks Página 2 de 13

considered aphanitic. Aphanitic rocks rich in light-colored (felsic) minerals are termed felsitic.

Grain shape

In igneous rocks grain shape is controlled by many factors. In highly glassy rocks the rate of growth is
important. Crystallites ( Fig. 1 ) are the most rudimentary forms and abound in glassy rocks in which rapid
consolidation has arrested further growth. They are too small to polarize light and cannot be identified as to
mineral species. These embryonic forms are perhaps most varied and beautifully displayed in the glassy
rock, pitchstone. See also: Obsidian

Fig. 1 Crystals in igneous rocks. (a) Globulites (crystallites). (b) Margarites (strings of globulites). (c) Belonites
(microlites). (d) Trichites (crystallites). (e) Scopulites (crystallites). (f) Skeletal crystals (microlites).

Microlites are slightly larger, elongate crystals. They polarize light and can usually be identified specifically
under the microscope. Many microlites have grown rapidly but imperfectly to form skeletal crystals ( Fig.
1 ).

In most rocks, grain shape is controlled largely by sequence of mineral crystallization and the nature and
variety of associated minerals. A grain is said to be euhedral if bounded by its characteristic crystal faces
and anhedral if crystal faces are absent. Intermediate forms are subhedral. Crystals developed early in a
magma tend to be euhedral. Late crystals, however, meet interference from numerous adjacent grains and
are forced to assume irregular mutual boundaries.

It is not necessary that all mutually interfering grains develop anhedral forms. Some mineral species
possess a greater power of growth (a greater form energy) and can maintain their characteristic crystal
form in competition with adjacent minerals.

Most igneous rocks show a grainy or granular texture in which the majority of crystals are roughly
equidimensional. Rarely, grains with euhedral outline dominate and give the rock an idiomorphic granular
texture. More commonly, nearly all grains are anhedral and the rock texture is allotriomorphic granular.
Most rocks show an intermediate or hypidiomorphic granular texture ( Fig. 2 ).

Fig. 2 Hypidiomorphic granular texture in granodiorite. Euhedral plagioclase (P), subhedral hornblende (H), biotite (B),
anhedral quartz (Q), and potash feldspar (K). Accessory minerals include euhedral apatite (A) and subhedral magnetite
(black).

http://www.metrostate.edu/cgi-bin/troxy/lproxy.cgi/URL-www.accessscience.com/server... 11/06/2003
Igneous rocks Página 3 de 13

Porphyritic texture

The grain size of some igneous rocks is extremely uniform (equigranular texture), but that of others may
be highly inequigranular. Rocks in which relatively large crystals (phenocrysts) are dispersed in a matrix or
groundmass of finer-grained or glassy material are said to be porphyritic or phyric ( Fig. 3 ). Porphyritic
glasses with abundant phenocrysts are known specifically as vitrophyres.

Fig. 3 Porphyritic textures. (a) Porphyrtic rhyolite showing euhedral phenocrysts of sanidine and resorbed crystals of
quartz in a submicroscopically crystalline matrix. (b) Porphyritic basalt showing euhedral phenocrysts of plagioclase and
subhedral olivine in a matrix of granular pyroxene and feldspar microlites.

Porphyritic rocks may form in a number of ways. (1) Phenocrysts may have grown early and slowly while
the magma was deeply buried. The groundmass may have congealed later after the magma was erupted to
higher levels where rapid cooling ensued. (2) Phenocrysts in many rocks (some granites) may develop late
and still attain large dimensions if their growth rate is sufficiently greater than that of adjacent minerals.
(3) The large crystals of some plutonic rocks are probably more properly classed as porphyroblasts. They
may have formed essentially in solid rock by recrystallization aided by residual fluids from the solidifying
magma. (4) Large crystals in many rocks (certain porphyries and lamprophyres) may not be indigenous.
They may have been incorporated during intrusion of the magma. (5) Phenocrysts might develop by
inoculation or by disturbance of supersaturated magma. See also: Lamprophyre; Phenocryst; Porphyry

http://www.metrostate.edu/cgi-bin/troxy/lproxy.cgi/URL-www.accessscience.com/server... 11/06/2003
Igneous rocks Página 4 de 13

Poikilitic texture

This texture involves numerous small grains of one mineral, in random orientation, enclosed by single large
crystals of another ( Fig. 4a ). Conditions favoring development of poikilitic texture are not well understood.
In some rocks this texture may have developed by direct crystallization of magma. In other rocks this
texture may represent recrystallization of magmatic rocks.

Fig. 4 Poikilitic textures. (a) Poikilitic texture with large crystals of hornblende enclosing abundant small grains of
olivine. (b) Ophitic texture with large crystals of pyroxene enclosing small laths of plagioclase.

Ophitic texture

This is a special type of poikilitic texture and is characteristic of the rock diabase ( Fig. 4b ). The texture
involves lath-shaped crystals of plagioclase feldspar enclosed by large anhedral grains or plates of
pyroxene (augite or pigeonite). If the length of the feldspar crystals exceeds that of the pyroxene,
enclosure is only partial and the texture is called subophitic. See also: Dolerite

Other textures, more or less related to ophitic, are characteristic of very fine-grained and glassy rocks of
basaltic composition. See also: Basalt

Implication or intergrown textures

These are formed by the mutual penetration of two or more mineral phases. The intergrowth may be so
intimate that one phase appears disintegrated into smaller grains which are isolated by the other. Within
small domains, however, grains of one phase show optical and crystallographic continuity.

Graphic or micrographic textures may develop between almost any mineral pair where one member, in
cuneiform masses resembling runic inscriptions, is enclosed by the other ( Fig. 5a ). Micropegmatitic
texture is essentially a micrographic texture involving only quartz and potash feldspar ( Fig. 5b ). If the
intergrowth is more varied and involves plumose, fringing, radial, or micropegmatitic patterns, the texture
is granophyric ( Fig. 5c ). In myrmekitic texture plagioclase (generally oligoclose) grains enclose vermicular
quartz ( Fig. 5d ). Perthitic texture is extremely common in feldspars and takes on a wide variety of forms
( Fig. 6 ). It usually consists of tiny masses of sodic plagioclase which is enclosed by potash feldspar.
Various proportions of the two constituents may exist. Where potash feldspar is more abundant and
constitutes the host mineral, the material is known as perthite. Where plagioclase predominates, the
material is called antiperthite.

Fig. 5 Implication or intergrown textures. (a) Micrographic texture. (b) Micropegmatitic texture. (c) Granophyric texture.
(d) Myrmekitic texture.

http://www.metrostate.edu/cgi-bin/troxy/lproxy.cgi/URL-www.accessscience.com/server... 11/06/2003
Igneous rocks Página 5 de 13

Fig. 6 Perthitic textures. (a) String perthite. (b) Patch perthite. (c) Vein perthite. (d) Antiperthite.

Some implication textures may develop by simultaneous crystallization of two constituents. Others may
form by exsolution in the solid state (some perthite). Still other textures may be due to the partial
replacement of one mineral phase by another.

Structures

Structure as applied to igneous rocks is easily confused with texture. In general, however, structure refers
to a geometrical form or architectural feature in a rock. Structure emphasizes the heterogeneous nature of
a rock or mineral aggregate; texture emphasizes homogeneity. Certain large-scale structures, such as
faults, folds, and joints, are common to most rock types. They are perhaps more properly classed as
geologic structures. Like textures, the structures of igneous rocks may tell much about the history or
conditions of formation of the rocks themselves.

Vesicular structures

These structures are common in many volcanic rocks. They form when magma is brought to or near the
Earth's surface. Here the low pressure permits partial release and expansion of dissolved water or other
volatiles and the formation of steam bubbles which may be preserved as small cavities when the magma
congeals. In highly viscous lavas (rhyolitic) much gas may be trapped, but only tiny bubbles may form.
Rapid cooling of this frothy liquid produces a pumiceous structure (characteristic of the rock pumice). In

http://www.metrostate.edu/cgi-bin/troxy/lproxy.cgi/URL-www.accessscience.com/server... 11/06/2003
Igneous rocks Página 6 de 13

less viscous lavas (basaltic) integration of tiny bubbles produces a coarser, spongy, or scoriaceous
structure (characteristic of the rock scoria). Vesiculation of some basaltic lavas produces well-formed,
ellipsoidal cavities. These may later be filled with minerals (such as quartz, calcite, epidote, zeolite)
deposited from fluids which permeated the rock. Such fillings are called amygdules in allusion to their
almond shape. The structure is known as amygdaloidal ( Fig. 7a ).

Fig. 7 Igneous rock structures. (a) Amygdaloidal structure showing former gas cavities (bubbles) in lava filled with later
minerals. (b) Miarolitic cavity in fine-grained granite with allotriomorphic granular texture. Euhedral outline is visible
only where crystals form cavity boundary.

Miarolitic openings

These are the most common cavernous structures found in plutonic rocks. They are irregular, range up to
several inches across, and appear crusted with beautifully formed crystals (quartz and feldspar). These
crystals are not truly encrusting a cavity wall; their bases constitute an integral part of the rock ( Fig. 7b ).
This fact indicates that each cavity (vug) formed as a small interspace in the crystal aggregate and filled
with residual magmatic fluid against which bounding grains readily developed their euhedral outline.
Presence of muscovite, tourmaline, topaz, and apatite suggests that volatiles (water, fluorine, boron),
which concentrate in residual magmatic fluids, have played an important role in the development of
miarolitic structures. These cavities are most likely to form in rocks crystallizing at shallow depth where
confining pressure is relatively low.

Zoned crystals

Crystals possessing zonal structures are common and appear to be built up of concentric shells or zones of
different composition which follow the general crystal outline ( Fig. 8 ). Though minute, these zonal
structures are readily detected in thin sections under the microscope. Individual zones may be thick or thin,
and zoned boundaries may be sharp or gradational. Compositional changes from the crystal's center
outward may be great or slight; they may be progressive, reversed, interrupted, oscillatory, or repetitive.
Zoning is characteristic of minerals belonging to solid solution series (for example, plagioclase, pyroxene,
and amphibole).

Fig. 8 Crystals exhibiting igneous rock structures. (a) Zoned crystals of pyroxene. (b) Zoned plagioclase. (c) Hourglass
structure as seen in pyroxene.

http://www.metrostate.edu/cgi-bin/troxy/lproxy.cgi/URL-www.accessscience.com/server... 11/06/2003
Igneous rocks Página 7 de 13

Numerous theories have been proposed to explain various types of zoning in minerals. These are based on
physicochemical principles relating to supersaturation of the magma and changes in composition, pressure,
temperature, and volatile content of the magma. Movement of crystals from one part of the magma
chamber to another may have been important. The most common type of zoning (progressive) appears
because of incomplete reaction between solid and liquid phases during the crystallization of an isomorphous
series.

Hourglass structure

This structure, somewhat related to zoning, is most frequently displayed by crystals of pyroxene. Certain
sections through a crystal possessing the structure have the appearance of an hourglass ( Fig. 8c ). This
structure probably demonstrates the minute differences in energy involved at different faces of a growing
crystal. It may be due to selective adsorption of ions by different faces during crystal growth.

Reaction rims

These rims or zones, in which one mineral envelopes another, are believed to have formed by reaction and
are common in some rocks ( Fig. 9 ). They may develop by reaction between early formed crystals and
surrounding magma (pyroxene rims on early formed olivine crystals). Reaction between two incompatible
minerals, induced by residual fluids in the late stages of magma consolidation, may produce similar effects.
Pyroxene or amphibole may form by reaction around olivine crystals where they would otherwise come in
contact with plagioclase. Some petrologists refer to rims of primary origin as coronas and those of
secondary origin as kelyphitic borders.

Fig. 9 Reaction rims. (a) Pyroxene around quartz grain in basalt. (b) Hornblende around three grains of orthopyroxene in
norite. Most of rock is composed of plagioclase. (c) Rim of orthopyroxene formed between small olivine grains and
plagioclase in diabase. No rim exists between olivine in norite. (d) Reaction rims (inner, orthopyroxene; outer, amphibole)
around olivine in norite.

Spherulites

These are radial aggregates of needlelike crystals. They are roughly spherical and usually less than a
centimeter across ( Fig. 10 ). They abound in silica-rich lavas, particularly rhyolitic glass, and are composed
principally of quartz, tridymite, and alkali feldspar.

http://www.metrostate.edu/cgi-bin/troxy/lproxy.cgi/URL-www.accessscience.com/server... 11/06/2003
Igneous rocks Página 8 de 13

Fig. 10 Spherulitic features. (a) Spherulitic structure. (b) Spherulites in volcanic glass. (c) Fluidal structure showing
trains of spherulites, phenocrysts, microlites, and crystallites.

Somewhat similar aggregates in basaltic rocks, called varioles, consist of radial plagioclase crystals with
interstitial glass or granules of olivine or pyroxene.

Spherulites consisting of concentric shells with cavernous interspaces are known as lithophysae, or stone
bubbles. In many, the tiny annular cavities are lined with delicate crystals of cristobalite, quartz, and
feldspar.

Inclusions or enclosures

Inclusions are common in most varieties of igneous rocks. These masses of extraneous-looking material
vary widely in size, shape, constitution, and origin. Inclusions demonstrated to be foreign rock fragments
enclosed and trapped by congealing magma or lava may be specifically designated as xenoliths.
Incorporated foreign crystals are known as xenocrysts. See also: Xenolith

If an earlier consolidated portion of a magma is ruptured and fragments of it become enclosed by portions
which solidify later, the older rock bodies are known as autoliths. Enclosures formed by selective accretion
of minerals, either during or after consolidation of a magma, are termed segregations.

Orbicular structures

These structures, found in some plutonic rocks (granite, granodiorite, and diorite), are orblike masses
generally up to a few inches across. They show concentric shells of different mineral composition and
thickness which may envelope xenolithic cores ( Fig. 11 ). Most commonly dark mineral shells (rich in
biotite, hornblende, or pyroxene) alternate with light shells (rich in feldspar). Individual shells may be
sharply or vaguely defined, and the minerals within may be granular or elongate and in radial or tangential
arrangement.

Fig. 11 Orbicular structure.

http://www.metrostate.edu/cgi-bin/troxy/lproxy.cgi/URL-www.accessscience.com/server... 11/06/2003
Igneous rocks Página 9 de 13

Orbicular structures may develop by reaction (between xenoliths and magma) involving chemical
reconstitution of the solid fragments or rhythmic crystallization around xenoliths. Many orbicular structures
may represent products of metamorphism and metasomatism of solid rock. See also: Metamorphic
rocks; Metamorphism; Metasomatism

Pillow or ellipsoidal structure

This type of structure is a peculiar feature of certain lava flows (basalt, spilite). Rocks exhibiting this
structure appear to be composed of closely packed, pillow-shaped masses up to several feet across.
Individual pillows have a very fine-grained crust or margin which carries abundant vesicles, commonly
arranged concentrically with the pillow surface.

The pillows are so perfectly fitted together as to suggest that they were assembled in a plastic state.
Relatively little matrix occurs; and it consists commonly of chert, limestone, or shale. The close association
of pillow lavas with sedimentary rocks is in agreement with the popular belief that they are of subaqueous
origin. Pillow lavas have been observed to form both on dry land and in water, but the precise conditions
favoring their formation are still not well understood. See also: Precambrian; Spilite

Flow structure

This is a nongenetic term for a number of directive features in rocks. The structure may be formed by
flowage during crystallization of a magma (primary flow structure). Postsolidification flow (secondary) may
develop similar features, but these are classed as metamorphic in origin.

The structure takes the form of parallel streaks or lenses of different minerals or textures; or it may result
from parallel arrangement of elongate or platy minerals (mica, hornblende, or feldspar). Some flow
structures consist of abundant slabby inclusions or xenoliths in parallel orientation. Flowage may be
expressed by flow lines (lineation) or flow layers (some foliation). These may be straight or contorted.

Fluidal structure and fluxion structure

These are genetic terms and specifically imply flowage of lava or magma ( Fig. 10c ).

Schlieren

Schlieren are irregular streaks, patches, or layers having more or less blended outlines and measuring up
to many feet in length. They are generally composed of the same minerals as the enclosing rock but in
different proportions. Schlieren may represent early segregation drawn out by magma flow. Some may be
xenoliths more or less digested and reworked by magma. Others may represent residual magmatic liquors
of different composition injected into already crystallized portions. Schlieren formed in solid rocks are more
properly metamorphic or metasomatic features.

Banding

Banding is exhibited by rocks composed of alternating layers of different composition, texture, or color. The
term is merely descriptive, not genetic. If flowage is to be implied, the term flow banding is used.

Classification

Schemes for classifying igneous rocks are numerous. Prior to the advent of the polarizing microscope
(roughly 1870), rock classifications were based on megascopic characteristics, many of them misleading.
These systems were gradually improved as chemical analyses were more commonly employed.

Today three principal methods of classification are used. (1) Megascopic schemes are based on the
appearance of the rock-in-hand specimen or as seen with a magnifying glass (hand lens). Such schemes
are useful in the field study of rocks. (2) Microscopic schemes (largely mineralogical) are employed in
laboratory investigations where more detailed information is needed. (3) Chemical schemes are very useful

http://www.metrostate.edu/cgi-bin/troxy/lproxy.cgi/URL-www.accessscience.com/server... 11/06/2003
Igneous rocks Página 10 de 13

but have more limited application. The mineral content and texture of a rock generally tell much more
about the rock's origin than does a bulk chemical analysis. For example, granite, quartz porphyry, rhyolite,
and obsidian may all have the same chemical composition; but the geologic conditions under which each
forms may be very different. Granite solidifies slowly at depth and under high pressure. The porphyry may
crystallize in two stages, one at depth and a later one nearer the surface. The other two rocks are of
surficial origin; the obsidian solidifies most rapidly and as glass.

Igneous rocks show great variations chemically, mineralogically, texturally, and structurally with few if any
natural boundaries. This accounts in large part for the great disagreement among petrologists as to how
igneous rocks should be classified. The following subsections discuss plutonic, volcanic, and hypabyssal
types.

Plutonic rocks

Plutonic rocks occur in large intrusive masses (batholiths, stocks, and other large plutons). They form at
great depth and, therefore, are often referred to as abyssal rocks. Generated from large bodies of magma
which have cooled slowly,&blankln; they characteristically show a phaneritic, holocrystalline texture.

Under deep-seated conditions where confining pressure is high, volatiles dissolved in the magma are
retained until the last stage of crystallization. These act as fluxes and reduce the temperature of
crystallization. Consequently plutonic rocks, as compared with volcanic rocks, may carry relatively low-
temperature mineral phases.

Volcanic rocks

These are formed as lava flows or as pyroclastic rocks (heterogeneous accumulations of volcanic ash and
coarser fragmental matter). They have solidified rapidly to develop an aphanitic texture with more or less
glass. Volatiles are readily lost as the lava reaches the Earth's surface. Therefore, crystallization tends to
proceed within a relatively high-temperature range, so high-temperature minerals such as sanidine and
high-temperature plagioclase are characteristic. Expanding gas bubbles formed by escaping volatiles
frequently create highly porous rocks.

Volcanic rocks frequently show evidence of two stages of cooling, an early, deep-seated stage (intratelluric)
and a later, effusive stage. Slow cooling in the first stage may produce a few large crystals. These become
suspended in the lava and frozen into an aphanitic matrix during the effusive stage. This accounts for the
porphyritic texture so commonly encountered in volcanic rocks.

Hypabyssal rocks

These rocks exhibit characteristics more or less intermediate between those of volcanic and plutonic types.
They differ from volcanic rocks in that they are intrusive and generally free from glass and vesicular
structures. They differ from plutonic rocks in that they occur in small bodies (dikes and sills) or in larger
bodies formed at&blankln; shallow depths (laccoliths) and they have textures characteristically resulting
from more rapid cooling. Hypabyssal rocks cannot be sharply distinguished from volcanic rocks on the one
hand and plutonic rocks on the other. The recognition of such a group, therefore, is perhaps of greater
value in field studies, where mode of occurrence is known, than in the laboratory.

The rocks of each subdivision (plutonic, volcanic, and hypabyssal) may be further divided into families
(groups with the same or closely allied composition and relatively limited textural variation). Families are
sometimes grouped into rock clans. A clan includes all families with the same chemical composition. Thus,
the gabbro family (plutonic), diabase family (hypabyssal), and basalt family (volcanic) have the same
chemical composition and, therefore, belong to the same clan (gabbro clan). The clan name is derived from
the plutonic family member.

The principal families of the phaneritic (plutonic) and aphanitic (volcanic) rocks are shown in Table 1 . This
scheme expresses something of the bulk chemical composition of the rock and the conditions of formation.
For discussion of rock types, see articles under specific names.

http://www.metrostate.edu/cgi-bin/troxy/lproxy.cgi/URL-www.accessscience.com/server... 11/06/2003
Igneous rocks Página 11 de 13

More specific rock types may be indicated by prefixing some pertinent mineral, textural, or structural term
to the appropriate family name (such as biotite granite, graphic granite, orbicular granite). See
also: Pegmatite

Chemical composition

By averaging a large number of chemical rock analyses, one may derive a representative composition for
each of the rock families. Average analyses for the more common igneous rocks are shown in Table 2 .
Such average values are very useful standards for comparison in spite of the fact that the variations within
families may be greater than those between families.

Mineral composition

Igneous rock-forming minerals may be classed as primary or secondary. The primary minerals are those
formed by direct crystallization from the magma. Secondary minerals may form at any subsequent time.

Essential primary minerals

The principal primary minerals are relatively few and may be classed as light-colored (felsic) or dark-
colored (mafic) varieties. Felsic is a mnemonic term for feldspathic minerals (feldspar and feldspathoids)
and silica (quartz, tridymite, and cristobalite). Mafic is mnemonic for magnesium and iron-rich minerals
(biotite, amphibole, pyroxene, and olivine). Felsic minerals are composed largely of silica, alumina, and
alkalies. Mafics are rich in iron, magnesium, and calcium.

Table 3 summarizes the essential primary constituents of the more common plutonic rocks. The percentage
ranges are highly generalized. Individual rock specimens may depart radically from these values, but the
averages are fairly representative and useful for comparison. The mineral composition of the corresponding
volcanic rocks is roughly similar to the values in the table. Major departures will be encountered particularly
in the glassy rocks.

Table 3. Approximate mineral composition of the common plutonic rocks

Rock Felsic minerals, % Total felsic, % Mafic minerals %

Granite Potassium feldspar, 35-45 80-95 Biotite, hornblende 5-20

Sodic plagioclase, 20-30

Quartz, 20-30

Granodiorite Potassium feldspar, 15-25 75-90 Biotite, hornblende 10-25

Sodic plagioclase, 35-45

Quartz, 15-25

Quartz diorite Oligoclase, andesine, 55-65 70-85 Hornblende, biotite, pyroxene 15-30

Quartz, 15-25

Potassium feldspar, 0-5

Syenite Potassium feldspar, 60-70 70-90 Biotite, hornblende, pyroxene 10-30

Sodic plagioclase, 10-20

Quartz or nepheline, 0-5

Monzonite Potassium feldspar, 20-30 65-85 Biotite, hornblende, pyroxene 15-35

Sodic plagioclase, 45-55

Quartz or nepheline, 0-5

Diorite Oiigociase, andesine, 60-70 60-80 Hornblende, biotite, pyroxene 20-40

http://www.metrostate.edu/cgi-bin/troxy/lproxy.cgi/URL-www.accessscience.com/server... 11/06/2003
Igneous rocks Página 12 de 13

Potassium feldspar, 0-5

Quartz or nepheline, 0-5

Gabbro Labradorite, bytownite, 45-70 45-75 Pyroxene, olivine, hornblende, biotite 25-55

Potassium feldspar, 0-5

Quartz or nepheline, 0-5

Accessory minerals

Accessory minerals are those occurring in very small or trace amounts. They consist principally of
magnetite, ilmenite, pyrite, hematite, apatite, zircon, rutile, and sphene. Most generally these are widely
distributed as tiny grains or crystals.

Secondary minerals

Included in this group are minerals formed by addition of material subsequent to solidification of the rock
or by alteration of minerals already present in the rock. The addition of fluorine and boron, which tend to
concentrate in the residual magmatic liquids, to already crystallized portions of the rock may form small
crystals of fluorite, topaz, or tourmaline. Alteration in which certain minerals become more or less
reconstituted is common and widespread. It is generally believed to occur during the last stages of
solidification while hot, residual fluids (for example, water and carbon dioxide) permeate the crystal
aggregate and convert water-free silicate minerals into hydrous forms. This hydrothermal or deuteric effect
may be so intense that virtually all igneous characteristics of the rock are lost. The common alteration
products derived from the essential primary minerals are listed as follows:

Primary mineral Secondary mineral

Quartz Not altered

Potash feldspar Kaolinite, sericite

Plagioclase Kaolinite, sericite (paragonite), epidote, zoisite, calcite

Nepheline Cancrinite, analcite, natrolite

Leucite Nepheline and potash feldspar

Sodalite Analcite, cancrinite

Biotite Chlorite, sphene, epidote, rutile, iron oxide

Hornblende Actinolite, biotite, chlorite, epidote, calcite

Orthopyroxene Antigorite, actinolite, talc

Clinopyroxene Hornblende, actinolite, biotite, chlorite, epidote, antigorite

Olivine Serpentine, magnetite, talc, magnesite

Density

Density is a significant rock property and is a function largely of mineralogical composition and porosity.
Chemical composition alone is not a reliable indication of density because different minerals (with different
densities) may form from a single bulk composition.

Table 4 gives the approximate average and common range of density for the more abundant plutonic
rocks. Densities of volcanic equivalents are generally slightly lower due to higher porosity and greater
amount of glass. Highly porous volcanic rocks (pumice and scoria) may be so vesicular as to float on water.
The density of completely glassy rocks is approximately 6% less than that of the corresponding
holocrystalline (entirely crystalline) type.

http://www.metrostate.edu/cgi-bin/troxy/lproxy.cgi/URL-www.accessscience.com/server... 11/06/2003
Igneous rocks Página 13 de 13

Carleton A. Chapman

BIBLIOGRAPHY
D. Barker, Igneous Rocks, 1983
R. A. Loren, Petrology: The Study of Igneous, Sedimentary, and Metamorphic Rocks, 1994
A. R. McBirney, Igneous Petrology, 2d ed., 1992
F. E. Wright, The Methods of Petrographic-Microscopic Research, 1977

DOI 10.1036/1097-8542.336700

Printed from AccessScience @ McGraw-Hill (www.AccessScience.com).

Copyright ©2000, 2001, 2002 The McGraw-Hill Companies. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of
Use as given at the website.

http://www.metrostate.edu/cgi-bin/troxy/lproxy.cgi/URL-www.accessscience.com/server... 11/06/2003