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History of nanotechnology

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Although nanotechnology is a relatively recent development in scientific research, the


development of its central concepts happened over a longer period of time.
Contents
[hide]

• 1 Overview
• 2 Historical background
• 3 Conceptual origins
• 4 Experimental advances
• 5 See also
• 6 References

• 7 External links

[edit] Overview
In 1965, Gordon Moore, one of the founders of Intel Corporation, made the outstanding
prediction that the number of transistors that could be fit in a given area would double every
18 months for the next ten years. This it did and the phenomenon became known as Moore's
Law. This trend has continued far past the predicted 10 years until this day, going from just
over 2000 transistors in the original 4004 processors of 1971 to over 700,000,000 transistors
in the Core 2. There has, of course, been a corresponding decrease in the size of individual
electronic elements, going from millimeters in the 60's to hundreds of nanometers in modern
circuitry.

At the same time, the chemistry, biochemistry and molecular genetics communities have been
moving in the other direction. Over much the same period, it has become possible to direct
the synthesis, either in the test tube or in modified living organisms.

Finally, the last quarter of a century has seen tremendous advances in our ability to control
and manipulate light. We can generate light pulses as short as a few femtoseconds (1 fs =
10−15 s). Light too has a size and this size is also on the hundred nanometer scale.

Thus now, at the beginning of a new century, three powerful technologies have met on a
common scale — the nanoscale — with the promise of revolutionizing both the worlds of
electronics and of biology. This new field, which we refer to as biomolecular
nanotechnology, holds many possibilities from fundamental research in molecular biology
and biophysics to applications in biosensing, biocontrol, bioinformatics, genomics, medicine,
computing, information storage and energy conversion.

[edit] Historical background


Humans have unwittingly employed nanotechnology for thousands of years, for example in
making steel, paintings and in vulcanizing rubber.[1] Each of these processes rely on the
properties of stochastically-formed atomic ensembles mere nanometers in size, and are
distinguished from chemistry in that they don't rely on the properties of individual molecules.
But the development of the body of concepts now subsumed under the term nanotechnology
has been slower...
The first mention of some of the distinguishing concepts in nanotechnology (but predating
use of that name) was in 1867 by James Clerk Maxwell when he proposed as a thought
experiment a tiny entity known as Maxwell's Demon able to handle individual molecules.

The first observations and size measurements of nano-particles was made during the first
decade of the 20th century. They are mostly associated with Richard Adolf Zsigmondy who
made a detailed study of gold sols and other nanomaterials with sizes down to 10 nm and
less. He published a book in 1914.[2] He used ultramicroscope that employes the dark field
method for seeing particles with sizes much less than light wavelength. Zsigmondy was also
the first who used nanometer explicitly for characterizing particle size. He determined it as
1/1,000,000 of millimeter. He developed the first system classification based on particle size
in the nanometer range.

There have been many significant developments during the 20th century in characterizing
nanomaterials and related phenomena, belonging to the field of interface and colloid science.
In the 1920s, Irving Langmuir and Katharine B. Blodgett introduced the concept of a
monolayer, a layer of material one molecule thick. Langmuir won a Nobel Prize in chemistry
for his work. In the early 1950s, Derjaguin and Abrikosova conducted the first measurement
of surface forces.[3]

There have been many studies of periodic colloidal structures and principles of molecular
self-assembly that are overviewed in the paper.[4] There are many other discoveries that serve
as the scientific basis for the modern nanotechnology which can be found in the
"Fundamentals of Interface and Colloid Science by H.Lyklema.[5]

[edit] Conceptual origins


The topic of nanotechnology was again touched upon by "There's Plenty of Room at the
Bottom," a talk given by physicist Richard Feynman at an American Physical Society
meeting at Caltech on December 29, 1959. Feynman described a process by which the ability
to manipulate individual atoms and molecules might be developed, using one set of precise
tools to build and operate another proportionally smaller set, so on down to the needed scale.
In the course of this, he noted, scaling issues would arise from the changing magnitude of
various physical phenomena: gravity would become less important, surface tension and Van
der Waals attraction would become more important, etc. This basic idea appears feasible, and
exponential assembly enhances it with parallelism to produce a useful quantity of end
products. At the meeting, Feynman announced two challenges, and he offered a prize of
$1000 for the first individuals to solve each one. The first challenge involved the construction
of a nanomotor, which, to Feynman's surprise, was achieved by November 1960 by William
McLellan. The second challenge involved the possibility of scaling down letters small
enough so as to be able to fit the entire Encyclopedia Britannica on the head of a pin; this
prize was claimed in 1985 by Tom Newman.[6]

In 1965 Gordon Moore observed that silicon transistors were undergoing a continual process
of scaling downward, an observation which was later codified as Moore's law. Since his
observation transistor minimum feature sizes have decreased from 10 micrometers to the 45-
65 nm range in 2007; one minimum feature is thus roughly 180 silicon atoms long.
The term "nanotechnology" was first defined by Norio Taniguchi of the Tokyo Science
University in a 1974 paper [7] as follows: "'Nano-technology' mainly consists of the
processing of, separation, consolidation, and deformation of materials by one atom or one
molecule." Since that time the definition of nanotechnology has generally been extended to
include features as large as 100 nm. Additionally, the idea that nanotechnology embraces
structures exhibiting quantum mechanical aspects, such as quantum dots, has further evolved
its definition.

Also in 1974 the process of atomic layer deposition, for depositing uniform thin films one
atomic layer at a time, was developed and patented by Dr. Tuomo Suntola and co-workers in
Finland.

In the 1980s the idea of nanotechnology as deterministic, rather than stochastic, handling of
individual atoms and molecules was conceptually explored in depth by Dr. K. Eric Drexler,
who promoted the technological significance of nano-scale phenomena and devices through
speeches and the books Engines of Creation: The Coming Era of Nanotechnology and
Nanosystems: Molecular Machinery, Manufacturing, and Computation, (ISBN 0-471-57518-
6). Drexler's vision of nanotechnology is often called "Molecular Nanotechnology" (MNT) or
"molecular manufacturing," and Drexler at one point proposed the term "zettatech" which
never became popular.

In 2004 Richard Jones wrote Soft Machines (nanotechnology and life), a book for lay
audiences published by Oxford University. In this book he describes radical nanotechnology
as a deterministic/mechanistic idea of nano engineered machines that does not take into
account the nanoscale challenges such as wetness, stickness, brownian motion, high viscosity
(Drexler view). He also explains what is soft nanotechnology or more appropriatelly
biomimetic nanotechnology which is the way forward, if not the best way, to design
functional nanodevices that can cope with all the problems at a nanoscale. One can think of
soft nanotechnology as the development of nanomachines that uses the lessons learned from
biology on how things work, chemistry to precisely engineer such devices and stochastic
physics to model the system and its natural processes in detail.

[edit] Experimental advances


Nanotechnology and nanoscience got a boost in the early 1980s with two major
developments: the birth of cluster science and the invention of the scanning tunneling
microscope (STM). This development led to the discovery of fullerenes in 1985 and the
structural assignment of carbon nanotubes a few years later. In another development, the
synthesis and properties of semiconductor nanocrystals were studied. This led to a fast
increasing number of semiconductor nanoparticles of quantum dots. IBM researcher Don
Eigler was the first to manipulate atoms using a scanning tunneling microscope in 1989. He
used 35 Xenon atoms to spell out the IBM logo.[8]

In the early 1990s Huffman and Kraetschmer, of the University of Arizona, discovered how
to synthesize and purify large quantities of fullerenes. This opened the door to their
characterization and functionalization by hundreds of investigators in government and
industrial laboratories. Shortly after, rubidium doped C60 was found to be a mid temperature
(Tc = 32 K) superconductor. At a meeting of the Materials Research Society in 1992, Dr. T.
Ebbesen (NEC) described to a spellbound audience his discovery and characterization of
carbon nanotubes. This event sent those in attendance and others downwind of his
presentation into their laboratories to reproduce and push those discoveries forward. Using
the same or similar tools as those used by Huffman and Kratschmere, hundreds of researchers
further developed the field of nanotube-based nanotechnology.

At present in 2007 the practice of nanotechnology embraces both stochastic approaches (in
which, for example, supramolecular chemistry creates waterproof pants) and deterministic
approaches wherein single molecules (created by stochastic chemistry) are manipulated on
substrate surfaces (created by stochastic deposition methods) by deterministic methods
comprising nudging them with STM or AFM probes and causing simple binding or cleavage
reactions to occur. The dream of a complex, deterministic molecular nanotechnology remains
elusive. Since the mid 1990s, thousands of surface scientists and thin film technocrats have
latched on to the nanotechnology bandwagon and redefined their disciplines as
nanotechnology. This has caused much confusion in the field and has spawned thousands of
"nano"-papers on the peer reviewed literature. Most of these reports are extensions of the
more ordinary research done in the parent fields.

For the future, some means has to be found for MNT design evolution at the nanoscale which
mimics the process of biological evolution at the molecular scale. Biological evolution
proceeds by random variation in ensemble averages of organisms combined with culling of
the less-successful variants and reproduction of the more-successful variants, and macroscale
engineering design also proceeds by a process of design evolution from simplicity to
complexity as set forth somewhat satirically by John Gall: "A complex system that works is
invariably found to have evolved from a simple system that worked. . . . A complex system
designed from scratch never works and can not be patched up to make it work. You have to
start over, beginning with a system that works." [9] A breakthrough in MNT is needed which
proceeds from the simple atomic ensembles which can be built with, e.g., an STM to complex
MNT systems via a process of design evolution. A handicap in this process is the difficulty of
seeing and manipulation at the nanoscale compared to the macroscale which makes
deterministic selection of successful trials difficult; in contrast biological evolution proceeds
via action of what Richard Dawkins has called the "blind watchmaker" [10] comprising
random molecular variation and deterministic reproduction/extinction.

Nano 10 usus.
Nanoparticles may be able to detect bacteria, extend food shelf life, add health benefits, or
improve flavor, reports Discovery.

While nanotechnology does not involve any genetic manipulation, many companies are
keeping secret about their work their doing. While this can keep competitors off their trail, it
can also make it difficult for regulatory agencies to manage risks and create laws for these
emerging technologies.

Nonetheless, nanotechnology offers some exciting potential benefits for the quality and safety
of our foods.

1. CONTAMINATION SENSOR: Flash a light to reveal the presence of E. coli bacteria.

2. ANTIMICROBIAL PACKAGING: Edible food films made with cinnamon or oregano oil,
or nano particles of zinc, calcium other materials that kill bacteria.

3. IMPROVED FOOD STORAGE: Nano-enhanced barrier keeps oxygen-sensitive foods


fresher.

4. ENHANCED NUTRIENT DELIVERY


Nano-encapsulating improves solubility of vitamins, antioxidants, healthy omega oils and
other ‘nutraceuticals’.

5. GREEN PACKAGING: Nano-fibers made from lobster shells or organic corn are both
antimicrobial and biodegradable.

6. PESTICIDE REDUCTION: A cloth saturated with nano fibers slowly releases pesticides,
eliminating need for additional spraying and reducing chemical leakage into the water supply.

7. TRACKING, TRACING; BRAND PROTECTION: Nanobarcodes can be created to tag


individual products and trace outbreaks.

8. TEXTURE: Food spreadability and stability improve with nano-sized crystals and lipids
for better low-fat foods.

9. FLAVOR: Trick the tongue with bitter blockers or sweet and salty enhancers.

10. BACTERIA IDENTIFICATION AND ELIMINATION: Nano carbohydrate particles


bind with bacteria so they can be detected and eliminated.
Nano tec. Use current.

rom "The Next Big Thing Is Really Small: How Nanotechnology Will Change The Future Of
ss" (by Jack Uldrich and Deb Newberry Read our review) sums it up nicely:

to say that nanotechnology is a far-off, fuzzy, futuristic technology. It is not. It has already
The lates
a beachhead in the economy. The clothing industry is starting to feel the effects of nanotech.
from aro
r, for example, is currently using embedded nanoparticles to create stain-repellent khakis. This
world, FR
imple innovation will impact not only khaki-wearers, but dry cleaners, who will find their
clining; detergent makers, who will find less of their product moving off the shelf; and stain-
kers, who will experience a sharp decrease in customers. This modest, fairly low-tech
of nanotechnology is just the small tip of a vast iceberg--an iceberg that threatens to sink even
able" companies."
Subscribe

head, see "The Future of Nanotechnology: Molecular Manufacturing" by K. Eric Drexler,


d Chairman, Foresight Institute, and Predictions

t created by the Project on Emerging Nanotechnologies, called A Nanotechnology Consumer


nventory. It contains over 803 current (as of December 2008) products.

Some examples of how nanotechnology impacts our lives now

Nanocomposites
es:

Researchers at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory have developed a coating process to make
sponge-like silica latch onto toxic metals in water. Self-Assembled Monolayers on Mesoporous
Supports easily captures such metals as lead and mercury, which are then recovered for reuse or
contained in-place forever. © PNNL One example of a SAMMS nanocomposite (Self-Assembled
Monolayers on Mesoporous Supports). An hexagonally close-packed cluster of tubular pores (end
view) is shown in the foreground. A single pore, in this case coated with a mercaptopropylsiloxy Premium
for monolayer, is shown in the background. A model of one surfactant molcule is also shown. See Products
on Will copper sop up radioactive pollution? for details.

nocomposite is being used for "step assists" in the GM Safari and Astro Vans. It is scratch-resistant, light- Only the
ust-proof, and generates improvements in strength and reductions in weight, which lead to fuel savings and you wan
gevity. And in 2001, Toyota started using nanocomposites in a bumper that makes it 60% lighter and twice as
to denting and scratching. Learn M
likely be used on other GM and Toyota models soon, and in other areas of their vehicles, as well as the other
tures, lowering weight, increasing milage, and creating longer-lasting autos. Likely to impact repair shops
needed) and auto insurance companies (fewer claims). Will also likely soon be seen everywhere weight,
ing, durability, and strength are important factors. Expect NASA, the ESA, and other space-faring
to take a serious look, soon, which will eventually result in lower lift costs, which will result in more material
Universi
to space. Technolo
Transfer
Patents
Learn M
crograph of typical silicon nanocomposite cross section showing uniform
of conductive carbon nanotube network. Photo courtesy of U.S. Air Force. See
Conductive Polymer Nanocomposite Materials for details.
Click image for larger
version Full-serv
expert c
ght sounds like the perfect recipe for a golf club, of course, which is why so many golf club manufacturers are
big bucks to nano R&D. Thus far, the only company among the big boys to convert research into tangible Learn M
Wilson, which offers three drivers, a fairway wood, four balls and even a golf bag made using nano-materials.

-based firm began looking into the potential of nanotechnology six years ago, but didn't come out with a
NCODE series of tennis rackets - until 2004. Later in the year, it started shipping drivers and fairway woods,
, Td5 (MSRP - $300) and FwC (MSRP - $200), whose crowns are constructed with nano carbon which,
s, creates a low-density, high-strength clubhead. Angus Moir, global business director, says use of nano
Wilson apart from the competition. "They make our products more user friendly," he says. link

Nanocrystals

Metal nanocrystals might be incorporated into car bumpers, making the parts stronger, or into aluminum,
e wear resistant. Metal nanocrystals might be used to produce bearings that last longer than their conventional
new types of sensors and components for computers and electronic hardware.

of various metals have been shown to be 100 percent, 200 percent and even as much as 300 percent harder
materials in bulk form. Because wear resistance often is dictated by the hardness of a metal, parts made from
might last significantly longer than conventional parts."
s.purdue.edu/UNS/html4ever/020816.Chandrasekar.nano.html

Nanocrystals absorb then re-emit the light in a different color -- the size of the
nanocrystal (in the Angstrom scale) determines the color.

Six different quantum dot solutions are shown, excited with a long-wave UV lamp.

Quantum dots are molecular-scale optical beacons. Qdot™ nanocrystals behave like
molecular LEDs (light emitting diodes) by "lighting up" biological binding events
with a broad palette of applied colors.
ge for larger
Image and description Courtesy and © Quantum Dot Corporation

ephew markets an antimicrobial dressing covered with nanocrystalline silver (A patented Technology of
harmaceuticals). The nanocrystalline coating of silver rapidly kills a broad spectrum of bacteria in as little as

"Nanocrystals are an ideal light harvester in photovoltaic devices. (They) absorb sunlight more
strongly than dye molecules or bulk semiconductor material, therefore high optical densities
can be achieved while maintaining the requirement of thin films. Perfectly crystalline CdSe
nanocrystals are also an artificial reaction center, separating the electron hole pair on a
femtosecond timescale. Fluorescent nanocrystals have several advantages over organic dye
molecules as fluorescent markers in biology. They are incredibly bright and do not
ge for photodegrade. Drug-conjugated nanocrystals attach to the protein in an extracellular fashion,
rsion enabling movies of protein trafficking. (They) also form the basis of a high-throughput
fluorescence assay for drug discovery." © Sandra Rosenthal, Assistant Professor of Chemistry,
The University of Chicago. Rosenthal Group

Nanoparticles

es:

nt Eddie Bauer Nano-CareTM khakis, with surface fibers of 10 to 100 nanometers, uses a process that coats
abric with "nano-whiskers." Developed by Nano-Tex, a Burlington Industries subsidiary. Dockers also makes
s shirt and even a tie treated with what they call "Stain Defender", another example of the same nanoscale
treatment.
cleaners, detergent and stain-removal makers, carpet and furniture makers, window covering makers .... See Subscrib
products Forbes/Wolf
Report & G
ual sales of aqueous polymer dispersion products amount to around $1.65 billion. All of them contain polymer Rep
ng from ten to several hundred nanometers in size. Polymer dispersions are found in exterior paints, coatings
, or are used in the finishing of paper, textiles and leather. Nanotechnology also has applications in the food
vitamins and their precursors, such as carotinoids, are insoluble in water. However, when skillfully produced
d as nanoparticles, these substances can easily be mixed with cold water, and their bioavailability in the
lso increases. Many lemonades and fruit juices contain these specially formulated additives, which often also
ractive color. In the cosmetics sector, BASF has for several years been among the leading suppliers of UV
ed on nanoparticulate zinc oxide. Incorporated in sun creams, the small particles filter the high-energy
of sunlight. Because of their tiny size, they remain invisible to the naked eye and so the cream is transparent on Nanotechn
skin. From Nanotechnology at BASF Featured

are utilizing nanoparticles that are extremely effective at absorbing light, especially in the ultra-violet (UV)
the particle size, they spread more easily, cover better, and save money since you use less. And they are
nlike traditional screens which are white. These sunscreens are so successful that by 2001 they had captured
of the Australian sunscreen market.
ers of sunscreen have to convert to using nanoparticles. And other product manufactures, like packaging
ind ways to incorporate them into packages to reduces UV exposure and subsequent spoilage. The $480B
d $300B plastics industries will be directly effected. See Big Opportunities for Small Particles

num nanoparticles, Argonide has created rocket propellants that burn at double the rate. They also produce Barnes&
oparticles that are incorporated into automotive lubricant to reduce engine wear. com

ica has produced a nanoparticulate-based synthetic bone. "Human bone is made of a calcium and phosphate
led Hydroxyapatite. By manipulation calcium and phosphate at the molecular level, we have created a
rial that is identical in structure and composition to natural bone. This novel synthetic bone can be used in
atural bone is damaged or removed, such as in the in the treatment of fractures and soft tissue injuries."

o International page for a list of applications for nanoparticles.

Nanostructured Materials

e:

makes a tungsten-carbide-cobalt composite powder (grain size less than 15nm) that is used to make a sintered
as diamond, which is in turn used to make cutting tools, drill bits, armor plate, and jet engine parts.
y industry that makes parts or components whose properties must include hardness and durability. See
Materials Get Tough A PDF document

oducing OLED color screens (made of nanostructured polymer films) for use in car stereos and cell phones.
nic light emitting diodes) may enable thinner, lighter, more flexible, less power consuming displays, and other
oducts such as cameras, PDAs, laptops, televisions, and other as yet undreamt of applications.
urrent makers of CRTs, liquid crystal displays (LCDs), and other display types. See OLEDs get ready to light
for flexible screens and KODAK OLED technical details [a PDF]

Nanoclays and Nanocomposites

e:

kaging, like beer bottles, as a barrier, allowing for thinner material, with a subsequently lighter weight, and
shelf-life.
B packaging and $300B plastics industries. Reduced weight means transportation costs decline. Changing
d aluminum - think beer and soda bottles - to plastic reduces production costs. Nanoclays help to hold the
arbonation inside the bottle, increasing shelf life. It is estimated that beer in these containers will gain an extra
m 120 to 180) of shelf life, reducing spoilage, and decreasing overall costs to the end user. Nanocor is one
ucing nanoclays and nanocomposites, for a variety of uses, including flame retardants, barrier film (as in juice
nd bottle barrier (as shown above). "They are not only used to improve existing products, but also are
r reach into areas formerly dominated by metal, glass and wood." See Nanocor

Nanocomposite Coatings

e:

ble Core tennis balls have a nanocomposite coating that keeps it bouncing twice as long as an old-style ball.
at LLC, this nanocomposite is a mix of butyl rubber, intermingled with nanoclay particles, giving the ball
longer shelf life.
are the next logical extension of this technology: it would make them lighter (better millage) and last longer
rformance). See Nanocomposites in tennis balls lock in air, build better bounce
Nanotubes
blog~
es:
Buildin
makes carbon nanotubes for commercial uses, of which one mundane (marketing tactic) use is in a tennis
by Babolat. The yoke of the racket bends less during ball impact, improving the player's performance. Quantu
companies like Nanoledge can scale-up their production from grams, to pounds, to tons, and can do so while
e type of nanotube they produce, the world becomes their oyster: everywhere strength and weight are a factor - Inappl
aerospace, automobile, and airplane industries - they will make a major (disruptive) impact. See French firm Intuit
get PR bounce out of nanotubes in tennis rackets

notech recently demonstrated a 14" monochrome display based on electron emission from carbon nanotubes.
e the process is perfected, costs will go down, and the high-end market will start being filled. Shortly
d hand-in-hand with the predictable drop in price of CNTs, production economies-of-scale will enable the
further still, at which time we will see nanotube-based screens in use everywhere CRTs and view screens are
ay. See Applied Nanotech demonstrates carbon nanotube TV

g is expected to demonstrate a CNT-based 32" display by the end of 2003.

Nanocatalysts

es:

est coal company (Shenhua Group) has licensed technology from Hydrocarbon Technologies that will enable
oal and turn it into gas. The process uses a gel-based nanoscale catalyst, which improves the efficiency and
the cost.
e technology lives up to its promise and can economically transform coal into diesel fuel and gasoline, coal-
such as the U.S., China and Germany could depend far less on imported oil. At the same time, acid-rain
uld be reduced because the liquefaction strips coal of harmful sulfur." See Very Small Business

haracteristic properties of all nanoparticles has been used from the outset in the manufacture of automotive
erters: The surface area of the particles increases dramatically as the particle size decreases and the weight
ame. A variety of chemical reactions take place on the surface of the catalyst, and the larger the surface area,
ve the catalyst. Nanoscale catalysts thus open the way for numerous process innovations to make many
esses more efficient and resource-saving – in other words more competitive. From Nanotechnology at BASF

Nanofilters

es:

Argonide Nanomaterials, an Orlando based manufacturer of nanoparticles and


products, makes a filter that is capable of filtering the smallest of particles. The performance is due to it’s
mina fiber, which attracts and retains sub-micron and nanosize particles. This disposable filter retains 99.9999+
at water flow rates several hundred times greater than virus-rated ultra porous membranes. It is useful for
f biological, pharmaceutical and medical serums, protein separation, collector/concentrator for biological
detectors, and several other applications.
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