Flight Instruments

AVIATOR
What is an Aviator
A: AGILE
V: VISIONER
I : INTELLIGENT
A: ARROGANT
T: TRUTHFUL
O: OBEDIENT
R: RESPECTFUL
History
 These early planes had no
instruments, radios, or other
navigational aids. Pilots flew by
dead reckoning or "by the seat of
their pants." Forced landings
occurred frequently because of
bad weather, but fatalities in those
early months were rare, largely
because of the small size,
maneuverability, and slow landing
speed of the planes.
Cockpit

 cockpit or flight deck is the area,

usually near the front of an aircraft,
from which a pilot controls the
aircraft. Most modern cockpits are
enclosed, except on some small
aircraft, and cockpits on large
airliners are also physically
separated from the cabin. From the
cockpit an aircraft is controlled on
the ground and in the air.
 Cockpit as a term for the pilot's
compartment in an aircraft first appeared
in 1914. From about 1935 cockpit also
came to be used informally to refer to the
driver's seat of a car, especially a high
performance one, and this is official
terminology in Formula One. The term is
most likely related to the sailing term for
the coxswain's station in a Royal Navy
ship, and later the location of the ship's
rudder controls.
Cockpit
1936 de Hollander Hornet
Moth cockpit
 The cockpit of an aircraft contains flight
instruments on an instrument panel, and the
controls which enable the pilot to fly the aircraft.
In most airliners, a door separates the cockpit
from the passenger compartment. After the
September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks, all major
airlines fortified the cockpit against access by
hijackers.
 On an airliner, the cockpit is usually referred to as
the flight deck. This term derives from its use by
the RAF for the separate, upper platform where
the pilot and co-pilot sat in large flying boats
 Ergonomics
 The first airplane with an enclosed cabin appeared in 1913
on Igor Sikorsky's airplane „‟The Grand‟‟.
 However, during the 1920s there were many passenger
aircraft in which the crew were open to the air while the
passengers sat in a cabin.
 Military biplanes and the first single-engined fighters and
attack aircraft also had open cockpits into the Second World
War.
 Early airplanes with closed cockpits were the 1924 Fokker
tri-motor, the 1926 Ford Tri-Motor, the 1927 Lockheed Vega,
the Spirit of St. Louis, the 1931 Taylor Cub, German Junkers
used as military transports, and the passenger aircraft
manufactured by the Douglas and Boeing companies during
the mid-1930s.
 Open-cockpit airplanes were almost extinct by the mid-
1950s, with the exception of training planes and crop-
dusters.
Basic Six
 The layout of the cockpit, especially in
the military fast jet, has undergone
standardization, both within and between
aircraft different manufacturers and even
different nations.
 One of the most important developments
was the “Basic Six” pattern, later the
“Basic T”, developed from 1937 onwards
by the Royal Air Force, designed to
optimize pilot instrument scanning
 Six basic instruments in a light twin-engine airplane arranged in
a "basic-T". From top left: airspeed indicator, attitude indicator,
altimeter, turn coordinator, heading indicator, and vertical speed
indicator
T arrangement
 Most aircraft built since about 1953 have
four of the flight instruments located in
a standardized pattern called the T
arrangement. The attitude indicator is in
the top center, airspeed to the left,
altimeter to the right and heading
indicator under the attitude indicator.
 The other two, turn-coordinator and
vertical-speed, are usually found under
the airspeed and altimeter, but are given
more latitude in placement.
 The magnetic compass will be above the
instrument panel, often on the
windscreen center post.
 In newer aircraft with glass cockpit
instruments the layout of the displays
conform to the basic T arrangement.
Basic Six

 In 1937 the Royal Air Force (RAF) chose a set of

six essential flight instruments which would
remain the standard panel used for flying in
Instrument Meteorological Conditions (IMC) for
the next 20 years. They were:
 airspeed indicator (knots)
 artificial horizon
 vertical speed indicator (rate of climb)
 altimeter
 directional gyro (compass)
 turn and bank indicator (aircraft attitude)
Basic Six in Commercial
 This panel arrangement was incorporated into
every RAF aircraft, from the light Tiger Moth, to
the heavy Avro Lancaster, and minimized the
type-conversion difficulties associated with Blind
Flying, since a pilot trained on one aircraft could
quickly become accustomed to any other if the
instruments were identical.
 This Basic Six set was also adopted by
commercial aviation. After the Second World War
the arrangement was changed to: (top row)
airspeed, artificial horizon, altimeter, (bottom row)
radio compass, direction indicator, vertical speed.
 Ergonomics and human factors concerns
are important in the design of modern
cockpits.
 The layout and function of cockpit
displays controls are designed to
increase pilot situation awareness
without causing information overload.
 In the past, many cockpits, especially in
fighter aircraft, limited the size of the
pilots that could fit into them. Now,
cockpits are being designed to
accommodate all sizes.
 In the design of the cockpit in a military fast jet, the traditional
“knobs and dials“ associated with the cockpit are mainly absent.
 Instrument panels are now almost wholly replaced by electronic
displays which are themselves often re-configurable to save
space. While some hard-wired dedicated switches must still be
used for reasons of integrity and safety, many traditional
controls are replaced by multi-function re-configurable controls
or so-called “soft keys”. Controls are incorporated onto the stick
and throttle to enable the pilot to maintain a head-up and eyes-
out position – the so-called Hands On Throttle And Stick or
HOTAS concept,.
 These controls may be then further augmented by new control
media such as head pointing with a Helmet Mounted Sighting
System or Direct Voice Input (DVI).
 New advances in auditory displays even allow for Direct Voice
Output of aircraft status information and for the spatial
localisation of warning sounds for improved monitoring of
aircraft systems. A central concept in the design of the cockpit
is the Design Eye Position or "DEP".
Helmet Mounted Sights
 Direct Voice Input
 Direct Voice Input (DVI) (also sometimes called
Voice Input Control (VIC)) is a style of Human-
Machine Interaction "HMI" in which the user makes
voice commands to issue instructions to the machine.
 It has found some usage in the design of the cockpit of
several modern military aircraft, particularly the Euro
fighter, the F-35 Lightning II, the Rafale and the JAS
39 Gripen, having been trialled on earlier fast jets such
as the Harrier AV-8B and F-16 VISTA.
 A study has also been undertaken by the Royal
Netherlands Air Force using voice control in a F-16
simulator.
 DVI systems may be "user-dependent" or "user-
independent". User-dependent systems require a
personal voice template to be created by the pilot
which must then be loaded onto the aircraft before
flight. User-independent systems do not require any
personal voice template and will work with the voice of
any user.
 The layout of control panels in modern airliners
has become largely unified across the industry.
 The majority of the systems-related controls
(such as electrical, fuel, hydraulics and
pressurization) for example, are usually located
in the ceiling on an overhead panel.
 Radios are generally placed on a panel between
the pilot's seats known as the pedestal.
Automatic flight controls such as the autopilot are
usually placed just below the windscreen and
above the main instrument panel on the
glareshield.
Back-up instruments

 In a less prominent part of the

cockpit, in case of failure of the
other instruments, there will be a
set of back-up instruments,
showing basic flight information
such as Speed, Altitude, Heading,
and aircraft attitude.
Aerospace industry
technologies
 In the U.S. the Federal Aviation
Administration (FAA) and the National
Aeronautics and Space Administration
(NASA) have researched the ergonomic
aspects of cockpit design and have
conducted investigations of airline
industry accidents. Cockpit design
disciplines include Cognitive Science
(internal mental processes),
Neuroscience, Human Computer
Interaction, Human Factors Engineering,
Anthropometry (study of human body)
and Ergonomics.
 Aircraft designs have adopted the fully
digital “glass cockpit.” In such designs,
instruments and gauges, including
navigational map displays, use a user
interface markup language.
 This standard defines the interface between
an independent cockpit display system,
generally produced by a single
manufacturer, and the avionics equipment
and user applications which it if required to
support, by means of displays and controls,
often made by different manufacturers.
 The separation between the overall display
system, and the applications driving it,
allows for considerable specialization and
independence.
Flight Instruments at a Glance
artificial horizon to show the pilot
the airplane‟s position in relation
to the ground.

Here, the airplane is banking left

with its nose on the horizon —
where brown ―ground‖ meets
blue ―sky.‖

BASIC INSTRUMENTS
The airspeed indicator shows
speed through the air --- not over
the ground.
The pitot tube on the
wing catches on-
rushing air. This ―ram
air‖ is compared to
―static‖ air to
determine air speed.

The static port

measures static or
still air – air that is
not affected by the
airplane’s speed
through the air
BASIC INSTRUMENTS
pressure outside the airplane and
compares it to air pressure at sea
level to determine altitude.

Like the hands of a clock, the long

hand shows smaller increments
(100s of feet) while the shorter hand
shows larger increments (1,000s of
feet).
This altimeter is reading 1720 feet.

BASIC INSTRUMENTS
the wings are level or banked.
The position of the ball indicates
if the airplane is turning properly.
Turn Coordinator

The ball is centered when

the turn is balanced by rudder

BASIC INSTRUMENTS
Gimbal
The heading indicator displays
the direction of flight.

This airplane is heading south

at 175 degrees.

BASIC INSTRUMENTS
The vertical speed indicator uses
changes in air pressure
to indicate rate of climb or
descent.

Airplane is descending at 190

feet per minute

BASIC INSTRUMENTS
Pilots use radios to
communicate with air
traffic control and other
pilots. Other radios also
are used to navigate
using ground stations
or satellites.

COMMUNICATION
Most airplanes have a radar
transponder that shows their
location, speed and altitude to
air traffic controllers

An assigned
four-digit
code helps
identify a
particular
airplane on a
controller’s
radar screen

COMMUNICATION
Pilots increasingly use GPS
satellite navigation to display
position and ground speed, locate
nearby airports, and plot course,
distance and time to any Bottom: Flat-panel GPS moving maps and
destination flight displays are just the ones in airliners
and some cars.

Top: GPS can be small,

handheld and portable.
There are plenty of
things to learn
INSIDE THE COCKPIT
OF AN AIRPLANE
 Instrumentation
 Pitot-static system
 Altimiter
 Vertical Speed Indicator
 Airspeed Indicator
 Gyroscopic Instruments
 Turn coordinator
 Artificial horizon
 Heading indicator
 Magnetic Compass
 OAT Gauge
Pitot-static system
 A pitot-static system is a system of
pressure-sensitive instruments that is
most often used in aviation to determine
an aircraft's airspeed, Mach number,
altitude, and altitude trend.
 A pitot-static system generally consists
of a pitot tube, a static port, and the pitot-
static instruments. This equipment is
used to measure the forces acting on a
vehicle as a function of the temperature,
density, pressure and viscosity of the
fluid in which it is operating.
 Other instruments that might be
connected are air data computers, flight
data recorders, altitude encoders, cabin
pressurization controllers, and various
airspeed switches.
 Errors in pitot-static system readings can
be extremely dangerous as the
information obtained from the pitot static
system, such as altitude, is often critical
to a successful flight.
 Several commercial airline disasters
have been traced to a failure of the pitot-
static system.
A Typical Electrically Heated Pitot-Static Head
A Typical Pitot-Static System.
Examples of pitot tube, static
tube, and pitot-static tube.
 The pitot-static system of instruments
uses the principle of air pressure
gradient.
 It works by measuring pressures or
pressure differences and using these
values to assess the speed and altitude.
 These pressures can be measured either
from the static port (static pressure) or
the pitot tube (pitot pressure).
 The static pressure is used in all
measurements, while the pitot pressure
is only used to determine airspeed.
 Pitot pressure
 The pitot pressure is obtained from the pitot
tube. The pitot pressure is a measure of ram air
pressure (the air pressure created by vehicle
motion or the air ramming into the tube), which,
under ideal conditions, is equal to stagnation
pressure, also called total pressure.
 The pitot tube is most often located on the wing
or front section of an aircraft, facing forward,
where its opening is exposed to the relative
wind.
 By situating the pitot tube in such a location, the
ram air pressure is more accurately measured
since it will be less distorted by the aircraft's
structure.
 When airspeed increases, the ram air pressure
is increased, which can be translated by the
airspeed indicator.
 Static pressure
 The static pressure is obtained through a static port. The
static port is most often a flush-mounted hole on the fuselage
of an aircraft, and is located where it can access the air flow
in a relatively undisturbed area. Some aircraft may have a
single static port, while others may have more than one.
 In situations where an aircraft has more than one static port,
there is usually one located on each side of the fuselage.
With this positioning, an average pressure can be taken,
which allows for more accurate readings in specific flight
situations.
 An alternative static port may be located inside the cabin of
the aircraft as a backup for when the external static port(s)
are blocked. A pitot-static tube effectively integrates the static
ports into the pitot probe. It incorporates a second coaxial
tube (or tubes) with pressure sampling holes on the sides of
the probe, outside the direct airflow, to measure the static
pressure.
Multiple pressure

 Some pitot-static systems incorporate

single probes that contain multiple
pressure-transmitting ports that allow for
the sensing of air pressure, angle of
attack, and angle of sideslip data.
Depending on the design, such air data
probes may be referred to as 5-hole or 7-
hole air data probes. Differential
pressure sensing techniques can be
used to produce angle of attack and
angle of sideslip indications.
Gyroscopic Principles
 Rigidity in space
Axis of rotation points in a
constant direction
regardless of the position
of its base.
 Precession
Tilting or turning of a gyro in
response to a deflective
force.
Internal mechanism of an
airspeed indicator
 The static ports are located on the exterior of the
aircraft, at a location chosen to detect the
prevailing atmospheric pressure as accurately as
possible, that is, with minimum disturbance from
the presence of the aircraft. Some aircraft have
static ports on both sides of the fuselage or
empennage (tail), in order to more accurately
measure static pressure during slips and skids.
Aerodynamic slips and skids cause either or both
static ports and pitot tube(s) to present
themselves to the relative wind in other than
basic forward motion. Thus, alternative
placement on some aircraft.
 The pitot-static system obtains pressures for
interpretation by the pitot-static instruments. While
the explanations below explain traditional,
mechanical instruments, many modern aircraft use
an air data computer (ADC) to calculate airspeed,
rate of climb, altitude and Mach number.
 In some aircraft, two ADCs receive total and static
pressure from independent pitot tubes and static
ports, and the aircraft's flight data computer
compares the information from both computers
and checks one against the other.
 There are also "standby instruments", which are
back-up pneumatic instruments employed in the
case of problems with the primary instruments.
Air Speed Indicator
 The airspeed indicator
or airspeed gauge is an
instrument used in an
aircraft to display the
craft's airspeed, typically
in knots, to the pilot.
Use of ASI
 The airspeed indicator is used by the pilot during
all phases of flight, from take-off, climb, cruise,
descent and landing in order to maintain
airspeeds specific to the aircraft type and
operating conditions as specified in the Operating
Manual.
 During instrument flight, the airspeed indicator is
used in addition to the Artificial horizon as an
instrument of reference for pitch control during
climbs, descents and turns.
 The airspeed indicator is also used in dead
reckoning, where time, speed, and bearing are
used for navigation in the absence of aids such
as NDBs, VORs or GPS.
 The difference between the pitot pressure and
the static pressure is called "impact pressure".
The greater the impact pressure, the higher the
airspeed reported. A traditional mechanical
airspeed indicator contains a pressure diaphragm
that is connected to the pitot tube. The case
around the diaphragm is airtight and is vented to
the static port. The higher the speed, the higher
the ram pressure, the more pressure exerted on
the diaphragm, and the larger the needle
movement through the mechanical linkage. tight
and is vented to the static port. The higher the
speed, the higher the ram pressure, the more
pressure exerted on the diaphragm, and the
larger the needle movement through the
mechanical linkage.
On light aircraft

 Airspeed indicator markings use a set of

standardized colored bands and lines on
the face of the instrument. The white
range is the normal range of operating
speeds for the aircraft with the flaps
extended as for landing or takeoff. The
green range is the normal range of
operating speeds for the aircraft without
flaps extended. The yellow range is the
range in which the aircraft may be
operated in smooth air, and then only
with caution to avoid abrupt control
movement.
 Airspeeds – color coded
 VSO – stall speed / minimum
steady flight in landing
configuration (lower limit of white
arc)
 VFE – max. flap-extended speed
(upper limit of white arc)
 VS1 – stall speed in specified
configuration (lower limit of
green arc)
 VNO – max. structural cruising
speed (top of green arc, bottom
of yellow arc)
 VNE – never exceed speed
(upper limit of yellow arc, marked
in red)
 A redline mark indicates VNE, or velocity (never
exceed). This is the maximum demonstrated safe
airspeed that the aircraft must not exceed under any
circumstances. The red line is preceded by a yellow
band which is the caution area, which runs from VNO
(maximum structural cruise speed) to VNE. A green
band runs from VS1 to VNO. VS1 is the stall speed
with flaps and landing gear retracted. A white band
runs from VSO to VFE. VSO is the stall speed with
flaps extended, and VFE is the highest speed at which
flaps can be extended. Airspeed indicators in multi-
engine aircraft show a short radial red line near to the
bottom of green arc for Vmc, the minimum indicated
airspeed at which the aircraft can be controlled with the
critical engine inoperative and a blue line for VYSE, the
speed for best rate of climb with the critical engine
inoperative.
Airspeeds, others
 VLE – max. landing gear-extended speed.
 VA – design maneuvering speed (flown in
rough air or turbulence to prevent
overstressing airframe)
 VY – Best rate-of-climb airspeed (creates
most altitude in a given period of time)
 VX – Best angle-of-climb speed (airspeed
resulting in most altitude in a given
distance.)
Aircraft V=Speeds
100 Knots =115 MPH
 100 MPH = 87 knots
 “V” stands for Velocity
 VNE = Never Exceed Speed = Red Line
VA = Maneuvering speed
Not depicted on airspeed
indicator
 maneuvering speed, the speed at which
full and abrupt control movement can be
applied without the possibility of causing
structural damage, and, separately, the
maximum speed at which the aircraft
can be flown in turbulent conditions.
 White Arc is Flap
Operating Speed
 Bottom of White Arc is VS0…Stall speed with flaps
fully extended

Top of the white arc is Vfe…Max flap extension speed

 Green arc is the normal
operating range
 Bottom of Green band represents
 Vs: The Stall speed with the flaps retracted

Top of the Green Band is Vno

Vno is maximum structural cruising speed
Yellow arc
The yellow range is the range in which the aircraft may be
operated in smooth air, and then only with caution to avoid
abrupt control movement.

 Yellow arc = Vno

through Vne
Vx Best angle of
Most altitude gained over a given distance.
climb
Used short term to clear an obstacle
poor visibility and poor engine cooling

 Cessna 172 VX = 62Kts

Vy… Most altitude in
shortest amount of time

 Cessna 172 Vy =74

Kts
Best L/D

 Represents best Glide

Speed…Used for best gliding
speed if you have an engine failure
 Best L/D in a Cessna 172 at gross
weight is 68 Kts
TAS True airspeed
Speed of wing through air mass
Ground speed
Speed of aircraft relative to the
ground
TAS= 110Kts -15 Kt
headwind
What is your groundspeed ?
TAS = 65 Knots with
25kt tailwind
What is your groundspeed?
Airspeed gets input from
Pitot tube and static air
source
Vso ?
Vs ?
Va ?
Vno ?
Vs ?
Vfe ?
Vne ?
To clear an obstacle you should fly
at?
VY
VX
Best L/D
VA
To obtain maximum glide speed after
an engine failure you should fly at?
VY
VX
Best L/D
VA
In moderate turbulence you should
fly at?
VY
VX
Best L/D
VA
To climb to 5000 feet in the least
amount of time you should fly at?
VY
VX
Best L/D
VA
When will groundspeed
and true airspeed be
equal?
Airspeed indicator
markings for a light
multiengine airplane.
On large aircraft

 The airspeed indicator is especially

important for monitoring V-Speeds while
operating an aircraft. However, in large
aircraft, V-speeds can vary considerably
depending on airfield elevation,
temperature and aircraft weight. For this
reason the coloured ranges found on the
ASIs of light aircraft are not used -
instead the instrument has a number of
moveable pointers known as bugs which
may be preset by the pilot to indicate
appropriate V-speeds for the current
conditions.
 Jet aircraft do not have VNO and VNE like
piston-engined aircraft, but instead have a
maximum operating IAS, VMO and maximum
Mach number, MMO. To observe both limits, the
pilot of a jet airplane needs both an airspeed
indicator and a Machmeter, each with
appropriate red lines. In some general aviation jet
airplanes, the Machmeter is combined into a
single instrument that contains a pair of
concentric indicators, one for the indicated
airspeed and the other for indicated Mach
number.
 An alternative single instrument is the
"maximum allowable airspeed indicator."
It has a movable pointer that indicates
the never-exceed speed, which changes
with altitude to avoid the onset of
transonic shock waves on the wing. The
pointer is usually red-and-white striped,
and thus known as a "barber pole". As
the aircraft climbs to high altitude, such
that MMO rather than VMO becomes the
limiting speed, the barber pole moves to
lower IAS values.
 Modern aircraft employing glass cockpit
instrument systems employ two airspeed
indicators: an electronic indicator on the
primary flight data panel and a traditional
mechanical instrument for use if the
electronic panels fail. The airspeed is
typically presented in the form of a "tape
strip" that moves up and down, with the
current airspeed in the middle. The same
color scheme is used as on a
mechanical airspeed indicator to
represent the V speeds.
 Digital Displays
 Attitude indicator – There are two
modes for the attitude indicator,
'Synthetic Vision' and 'Standard.' In
Standard mode, an artificial horizon is
shown as a white line, with blue for the
sky and brown for the ground. In
Synthetic Vision mode, you'll see blue
for the sky, but will see a
representation of terrain on the ground
including mountains, rivers and lakes.
Terrain at or above your altitude is
shown in red. What you see is a
simulated view “out the front window.”
 Digital Air Speeds
Indications
 Indicated airspeed in knots is shown as a
moving tape on the left side of the attitude box.
The current digital airspeed is found in the box
in the middle of the tape. Colored arcs are
depicted on the tape as well as Vx and Vy
speeds for reference.
 True Air Speed as calculated using the
current outside air temperature is shown at the
top of the screen.
 Ground Speed is displayed at the bottom of
the screen, as calculated using the GPS
 A magenta airspeed trend line appears to the
right of the airspeed tape, showing you where
your airspeed will be in 10 seconds if the
current rate of change remains constant. This
really helps nail those approaches.
Digital Indications
 Magnetic Heading is
displayed in the box
at the top center of
the display. The
heading is
determined by a
sensitive
magnetometer and
flies like a gyro. No
drift, no lag, and it
doesn't need
resetting.
 Digital Indications
 Altimeter – On the right side of the AI, an
altitude tape displays the current altitude
calibrated up to 30,000‟. A „foot‟ is shown in
brown to indicate the ground level at your
current position. This is derived from the
terrain database. Your altitude AGL is also
shown at the bottom of the display.
 The current altimeter setting is shown at the
top of the screen, and can be shown in Mb,
MSL, or In. Hg. The setting is changed in the
settings screen.
 An Altitude 'bug' can be shown on the altitude
tape to help you remember an assigned
altitude, decision height, or whatever.
 Digital Indications
 Vertical speed indicator – A black
bar to the left of the altimeter shows
your climb or descent rate along with
the digital value to the nearest 100
feet/minute.
 A magenta trend line will also show
you where your altitude will be in 10
seconds if the current rate is
maintained. It it much more sensitive
than the VSI.
Digital Indications
 Turn Coordinator –
Two yellow tic marks at
the top of the AI
indicate the bank angle
required for a standard
rate turn at the current
airspeed. They spread
out when you speed up
and move closer
together when you slow
down. When the
bottom black triangle is
aligned with a yellow
mark, you're in a
standard rate turn.
Digital Indications
 Slip/Skid
indicator – A
traditional “ball in
the tube of
kerosene” is
displayed at the
bottom of the
attitude indicator,
as calculated
from the internal
sensors.
Digital Indications
 G-Meter - Its
always nice to
know how many
Gs you're pulling,
so we show
you. Min and
Max Gs are
shown in the
settings screen.
Digital Indications
 Current Autopilot
source - The source
used to drive the
autopilot is displayed
in the upper left
corner of the
screen. When the
autopilot is engaged,
the word Autopilot
appears just above
the source. The
source can be GPS,
Virtual VOR, Heading
bug, Course Bug,
and External
glideslope.
Problems
 Icing is a problem for pitot tubes when the air
temperature is below freezing and visible
moisture is present in the atmosphere, as when
flying through cloud or precipitation. Electrically
heated pitot tubes are used to prevent ice
forming over the tube.
 The airspeed indicator and altimeter will be
rendered inoperative by blockage in the static
system.
 To avoid this problem, most aircraft intended for
use in instrument meteorological conditions are
equipped with an alternate source of static
pressure.
 In unpressurised aircraft, the alternate static
source is usually achieved by opening the static
pressure system to the air in the cabin. This is
less accurate, but is still workable. In pressurised
aircraft, the alternate static source is a second
set of static ports on the skin of the aircraft, but at
a different location to the primary source.
Variations - Lift Reserve
Indicator as installed
 The Lift Reserve Indicator (LRI) has been
proposed as an alternative or backup to the
Airspeed Indicator (ASI) during critical stages of
flight. This is an elegant device but is rarely found
in light aircraft or even transport jets. The
conventional Airspeed Indicator is less sensitive
and less accurate as airspeed diminishes, thus
providing less reliable information to the pilot as
the aircraft slows towards the stall. The actual
stall speed of an aircraft also varies with flight
conditions, particularly changes in gross weight
and wing loading during maneuvers. The ASI
does not show the pilot directly how the stall is
being approached during these maneuvers,
whereas the LRI does.
 The LRI shows the pilot directly the
Potential of Wing Lift (POWL) above the
stall at all times and at any airspeed, so
it is more descriptive and easier for the
pilot to use. The LRI uses dynamic
differential pressure and Angle of
Attack to operate. It is very fast acting
and extremely accurate at slow
airspeeds, thus providing more reliable
information to the pilot as airspeed
diminishes and becomes critical.
 The LRI uses a three zone, red-white-green
display. During flight, the green zone is well
above the stall where flight controls are firm,
angle of attack is low, and the unused POWL is
high. The white zone is near the stall where flight
controls soften, angle of attack is high, and the
unused POWL is diminished. The top of the red
zone defines the beginning of the stall. The
severity of stall increases as the needle travels
deeper into the red. During the takeoff, the LRI
uses dynamic pressure to operate and will not lift
the needle above the red zone until enough
airspeed energy is available to fly.
 The LRI has been well received by STOL pilots
and pilots of experimental or home-built aircraft.
The LRI is very useful for short field landings,
short field takeoffs, and slow speed maneuvers
such as steep turns, steep climbs, and steep
descents, and also allows pilots of fast or
"slippery" aircraft to land with little or no float very
reliably. Since the LRI is so useful at the critical
lower end of the flight envelope, most pilots will
use the LRI as a complement to the ASI, using
the LRI for slow speed work and the ASI for
cruising and navigational work.
Types of airspeed
measurements
 Memory aid: "ICE-T" (iced tea), or
Indicated->Calibrated->Equivalent-
>True. This is a Pretty Cool Drink,
giving you the errors compensated
for between the speeds Position,
Compression and Density
 At increased Density Altitude, for the same given
indicated airspeed the aircraft's true airspeed (TAS)
will be higher, but the same indicated airspeed limits
(IAS) apply. Likewise, most efficient cruise speed, total
drag, available lift, stall speed, and other aerodynamic
information depend on calibrated, not true airspeed.
Most aircraft exhibit a small difference between the
airspeed actually shown on the instrument (indicated
airspeed, or IAS) and the speed the instrument should
theoretically show (calibrated airspeed or CAS). This
difference, called position error, is mainly due to
inaccurate sensing of static pressure. It is usually not
possible to find a position for the static ports which, at
all angles of attack, accurately senses the atmospheric
pressure at the altitude at which the aircraft is flying.
 Bernoulli's principle states that
total pressure is constant along a
streamline. Pitot pressure is equal
to total pressure so pitot pressure
is constant all around the aircraft
and does not suffer position error.
(However, pitot pressure can suffer
alignment error if the pitot tube is
not aligned directly into the
oncoming airflow.)
 The position of static ports must be
selected carefully by an aircraft
designer because position error
must be small at all speeds within
the operating range of the aircraft.
A calibration chart specific to the
type of aircraft is usually provided.
 At high speeds and altitudes, calibrated airspeed
must be further corrected for compressibility error
to give equivalent airspeed (EAS).
Compressibility error arises because the impact
pressure will cause the air to compress in the
pitot tube. The calibration equation (see
calibrated airspeed) accounts for compressibility,
but only at standard sea level pressure. At other
altitudes compressibility error correction may be
obtained from a chart. In practice compressibility
error is negligible below about 3,000 m / 10,000
feet and 100 m/s / 200 knots CAS.
 The true airspeed can be calculated as a function
of equivalent airspeed and local air density, (or
temperature and pressure altitude which
determine density). Some airspeed indicators
incorporate a slide rule mechanism to perform
this calculation. Otherwise, it can be performed
with a calculator such as the E6B handheld
circular slide rule. For a quick approximation of
TAS add 2% per 300m / 1000 feet of altitude to
IAS (or CAS). e.g. IAS = 52 m/s /100 Knots. At
3000 m / 10,000' Above Sea Level, TAS is 62
m/s / 120 Knots.
The End !
Questions?
Sensitive Altimeter

 A sensitive altimeter is an aneroid

barometer that measures the
absolute pressure of the ambient
air and displays it in terms of feet
or meters above a selected
pressure level.
Altimeter