07 CentralPulp AlokKumarGoel

POWER GENERATION, ENERGY
EFFICIENT PUMP AND

COMPRESSED AIR SYSTEM
BY
ALOK KUMAR GOEL
Central Pulp & Paper Research Institute

P.O.Box. 174, Saharanpur
Central Pulp & Paper Research Institute, Saharanpur
Typical Electric power Supply System
Power Generation Plant
Principle of Thermal Power Generation

Transmission and Distribution Lines
The power plants typically produce 50 cycle/second
(Hertz), alternating-current (AC) electricity with voltages
between 11kV and 33kV. At the power plant site, the 3-
phase voltage is stepped up to a higher voltage for
transmission on cables strung on cross-country towers.
High voltage (HV) and extra high voltage (EHV)

transmission is the next stage from power plant to
transport A.C. power over long distances at voltages like;
220 kV & 400 kV. Where transmission is over 1000 kM,
high voltage direct current transmission is also favoured
to minimize the losses.
• Sub transmission at 132 kV, 110 kV, 66 kV or 33 kV
constitutes the next link towards the end user.
• Distribution at 11kV, 6.6 kV, 3.3 kV constitutes the
next link to the consumer.
Why high voltage is preferred in T&D
• V=IR
– Higher the voltage lesser the Voltage drop
– Voltage drop proportional to the ratio of voltages
• Power loss = I2R
– Higher the voltage, lesser the current and lesser the
power loss
• For ex. If voltage is raised from 11 kV to 33 kV
the voltage drop would be lowered by a figure of
1/3 and line loss would be lowered by (1/3)2
• Higher voltage can also bring down the conductor
sizes on account of lower currents handled
G e n e r a t io n E ffic ie n c y r a n g e s 2 8 - 3 5 % w it h r e s p e c t t o s iz e o f t h e r m a l
E ffic ie n c y η 1 p la n t , a g e o f p la n t a n d c a p a c it y u t ilis a t io n
S t e p - u p S t a t io n S t e p - u p t o 4 0 0 / 8 0 0 k V t o e n a b le E H V t r a n s m is s io n .
η2 E n v is a g e d m a x . lo s s e s 0 .5 % o r e ffic ie n c y o f 9 9 .5 %
EHV E H V t r a n s m is s io n a n d s u b s t a t io n s a t 4 0 0 k V / 8 0 0 k V .
T r a n s m is s io n & E n v is a g e d m a x im u m lo s s e s 1 .0 % o r e ffic ie n c y o f 9 9 %
η 3 S t a t io n
HV H V t r a n s m is s io n & S u b s t a t io n s fo r 2 2 0 / 4 0 0 k V .
T r a n s m is s io n & E n v is a g e d m a x im u m lo s s e s 2 .5 % o r e ffic ie n c y o f 9 7 .5 %
S t a t io n η 4
S ub- S u b - t r a n s m is s io n a t 6 6 / 1 3 2 k V
t r a n s m is s io n η 5 E n v is a g e d m a x im u m lo s s e s 4 % o r e ffic ie n c y o f 9 6 %
D is t r ib u t io n S t e p - d o w n t o a le v e l o f 1 1 / 3 3 k V .
S t a t io n η 6 E n v is a g e d lo s s e s 0 .5 % o r e ffic ie n c y o f 9 9 .5 %
P r im a r y D is t r ib u t io n is fin a l lin k t o e n d u s e r a t 1 1 / 3 3 k V .
D is t r ib u t io n η 7 E n v is a g e d lo s s e s m a x im u m 5 % o f e ffic ie n c y o f 9 5 %
E nd u ser C a s c a d e e ffic ie n c y fro m G e n e ra t io n t o e n d u s e r

P r e m is e s = η1 × η2 × η3 × η4 × η5 × η6 × η7
T h e c a s c a d e e ffic ie n c y in t h e T & D s ys t e m fr o m o u t p u t o f t h e p o w e r p la n t t o t h e e n d u s e
is 8 7 % ( i.e . 0 .9 9 5 x 0 .9 9 x 0 .9 7 5 x 0 .9 6 x 0 .9 9 .5 x 0 .9 5 = 8 7 % )

EB POWER SUPPLY
DG SET M TRIVECTOR METER Metering
11 KV/440V
Transformer
Transformer .Effi.98-99.5%
ELECTRICAL
M
Sub-station Dist. loss
1 -6%
Feeders,
M M M M C Capacitors
Distribution
C
Panels
C
Motors
Effi.85-96%
MECHANICAL
FANS & BLOWERS PUMPS R & AC COMPRESSORS LIGHTING, HEATING LOAD
Figure 1.3 Electrical Distribution System –Single Line Diagram

ONE unit saved = TWO units generated
1. During T & D, standard technical losses = 17%

(many of the states shows 17 – 50%)
2. Transformer efficiency = 95%
3. Motor efficiency = 90%
4. Pump efficiency = 70%
Total Efficiency: 50%

(0.83x0.95x0.90x0.70 = 0.50)

POWER FACTOR
In most modern electrical distribution

systems, the predominant loads are
resistive and inductive.
– Resistive loads are incandescent lighting
and resistance heating.
– Inductive loads are A.C. Motors, induction
furnaces, transformers and ballast-type
lighting.

Inductive loads require two kinds of power:
• active (or working) power to perform the work (motion) and
• reactive power to create and maintain electro-magnetic fields.
The vector sum of the active power and reactive power make
up the total (or apparent) power used. This is the power
generated by the utility for the user to perform a given amount
of work.

Transformer loading – 1160/1500 = 78 %
Capacitors totaling 410 kVAr installed in

each of the 13 large motors
Transformer loading – 913/1500 = 61 %

ADVANTAGES OF PF IMPROVEMENT
BY CAPACITER ADDITION
a. Reactive component of the network is reduced and so
also the total current in the system from the source end.
b. I2R power losses are reduced in the system because of
reduction in current.
c. Voltage level at load end increases.
d. kVA loading on the source generators as also on the
transformers and lines upto the capacitors reduced
giving capacity relief.
e. A high Power Factor can help in utilizing the full
capacity of your electrical system.

COST BENEFITS OF PF IMPROVEMENT
a. Reduced kVA (Maximum demand) charges in utility bill.

b. Reduced distribution losses (kWh) with in the plant network.
c. Better voltage at motor terminals and improved performance of
motors.
d. A high PF eliminates penalty charges imposed when operating
with a lower power factor.
e. Investment on system facilities such as transformers, cables,
switchgears etc. for delivering load is reduced.

Capacitor Locations
For motors of 50 hp and above, it is
best to install power factor correction
capacitors at the motor terminals since
distribution circuit loading is reduced.
The second arrangement shows

capacitor banks connected at the
bus for each motor control centre.
This compromise to Method 1 will
reduce installation costs.
The least expensive method shows

capacitor banks connected at the
service entrance. However, the
disadvantage is that higher feeder
currents still flow from the service
entrance to the end of line
equipment.

Transformers

What is a transformer..?
• Transformers consist of two or more coils that are electrically insulated, but
magnetically linked.
• Primary coil is connected to the power source and the secondary coil
connects to the load.
• The turn’s ratio is the ratio between the number of turns on the primary to
the turns on the secondary
• A transformer can accept energy at one voltage and deliver it at another

voltage
• The secondary voltage is equal to the primary voltage times the turn’s ratio
• Primary ampere-turns are equal to secondary ampere-turns
• Voltage regulation of a transformer is the percent increase in voltage from

full load to no load.
What are the Types of
Transformers
Power transformers : Used in transmission
network of higher voltages, deployed for step-up
and step down transformer application (400 kV,
200 kV, 110 kV, 66 kV, 33kV)
Distribution transformers: Used for lower
voltage distribution networks as a means to end
user connectivity. (11kV, 6.6 kV, 3.3 kV, 440V,
230V)
Typical transformer loss for distribution
transformers above100 kVA
KVA Rating Voltage No load loss Load Loss Impedance %
Rating (W) (W)
160 425 3000 5
200 570 3300 5
250 620 3700 5
315 800 4600 5
500 11000/433 1100 6500 5
630 1200 7500 5
1000 1800 11000 5
1600 2400 15500 5
2000 3000 20000 6
630 1450 7500 5
1000 33000/433 2200 11500 5
1600 3000 16000 6.25
2000 3500 21000 6.25

Transformer losses
• Load loss or copper loss
• No load loss or iron loss
– The total transformer loss, PTOTAL, at any load
level can then be calculated from:
• PTOTAL = PNO-LOAD+ (% Load)2 x PLOAD

Amorphous iron is expensive but reduces core loss to less than 30% those of
conventional steel cores. An alternative, less expensive core material is
silicone steel, which has losses higher than amorphous iron, but less than
standard carbon steel.

Example:
For a load of 1500 KVA the plant has installed three numbers of 1000 KVA
transformers. The No load loss is 2.8 KW and the full load loss 11.88 KW. Estimate
the total loss with 3 transformers in operation and 2 transformers in operation.
a) 2 transformers in operation :
No load loss = 2 x 2.8 = 5.6
Load loss = 2 x (750)2 x 11.88

(1000)
= 13.36 kW
Total Loss = 5.6 + 13.36 = 18.96
b) 3 transformers in operation :
No load loss = 3 x 2.8 = 8.4 KW
Load loss = 3 x (500)2 x 11.88 = 8.91 KW
(1000)
Total loss = 17.31 KW
Savings by loading all the 3 transformers = 13200 kWh.

Transformer Loss vs. Load

Ways to minimise distribution losses
• Relocating transformers and sub-stations near to load
centeres, reducing LT network, (or increasing HT / LT ratio).
• Re-routing and re-conductoring such feeders and lines where
the losses / voltage drops are higher.
• Power factor improvement by incorporating capacitors at load
end.
• Optimum loading of transformers in the system.
• Opting for lower resistance All Alluminium Alloy Conductors
(AAAC) in place of conventional Alluminium Cored Steel
Reinforced (ACSR) lines
• Minimizing losses due to weak links in distribution network
such as jumpers, loose contacts, old brittle conductors.
Minimising motor losses in
operation

System Approach: The key to large savings
– Switch off equipment when not needed

– Provide better controls (VSD instead of
throttling)
– Process re-engineering

DG set system

Comparison of Various power
generation options
Description Units Combined Conventional Diesel Engine
GT & ST Steam Plant Power Plants
Thermal Efficiency % 40 - 46 33 - 36 43 - 45
Initial Investment of Installed Capacity Rs./kW 8,500 - 10,000 15,000 -18,000 7,500 - 9,000
Cooling water requirement with once (Lt/kWh)
through cooling
Space requirement 125 % (App.) 250 % (App.) 100 % (App.)
Construction time Months 24 - 30 42 - 48 12 - 15
Project period Months 30 - 36 52 - 60 13 - 12
Auxiliary Power Consumption % 2-4 8 - 10 13 - 21
Plant Load Factor kWh/kW 6000 - 7000 5000 - 6000 7200 - 7500
Range of Control of Electrical output on % 0 - 100 42 - 100 25 - 100
Heavy oil
Start up time from cold minutes about 10 120 - 180 15 - 20

Advantages of adopting Diesel
Power Plants are:
• Low installation cost
• Short delivery periods and installation period
• Higher efficiency (as high as 43 -45 %)
• More efficient plant performance under part loads
• Suitable for different type of fuels such as low sulphur
heavy stock and heavy fuel oil in case of large capacities.
• Minimum cooling water requirements,
• Adopted with air cooled heat exchanger in areas where
water is not available
• Short start up time
Energy Balance
& Waste Heat Recovery in DG Sets
A typical energy balance in a DG set indicates following break-up:
Input : 100% Thermal Energy

Outputs : 35% Electrical Output
: 4% Alternator Losses
: 33% Stack Loss through Flue Gases
: 24% Coolant Losses

: 4% Radiation Losses

Potential of Waste Heat Recovery
Potential WHR = (kWh Output/Hour) × (8 kg Gases / kWh Output)

× 0.25 kcal/kgoC × (tg – 180oC)
- tg is the gas temperature after Turbocharger
(the criteria being that limiting exit gas temperature cannot be less than 180oC, to
avoid acid dew point corrosion)
- 0.25 being the specific heat of flue gases and
- kWh output being the actual average unit generation from the set per hour.
Example:
For a 1100 KVA set, at 800 KW loading, and with 480oC exhaust gas temperature,
the waste heat potential works out to:
800 kWh × 8 kg gas generation / kWh output × 0.25 kCal/kgoC

× (480 – 180), i.e., 4,80,000 kCal/hr

Typical Flue Gas Temperature and Flow Pattern in
a 5-MW DG Set at various Loads
100% Load 11.84 kgs/Sec 370oC
If the normal load is 60%, the flue gas parameters for waste heat
recovery unit would be 320oC inlet temperature, 180oC outlet
temperature and 27180 kgs/Hour gas flow.
At 90% loading, however, values would be 355oC and 32,400
kgs/Hour, respectively.
Energy Saving Measures for DG Sets
a) Ensure steady load conditions on the DG set, and provide cold, dust free
air at intake
b) Improve air filtration.
c) Ensure fuel oil storage, handling and preparation as per manufacturers’
guidelines/oil company data.
d) Consider fuel oil additives
e) Calibrate fuel injection pumps frequently.
f) Ensure compliance with maintenance checklist.
g) Ensure steady load conditions, avoiding fluctuations, imbalance in
phases, harmonic loads.
h) For base load operation, consider waste heat recovery system steam
generation or vapour absorption system adoption.
i) Consider partial use of biomass gas for generation. Ensure tar removal
from the gas for improving availability of the engine in the long run.
j) Consider parallel operation among the DG sets for improved loading .
Carryout regular field trials to monitor DG set performance, and
maintenance planning as per requirements.
Pumps and Pumping Systems

Energy Balance for a Typical Pumping System
100%
ELECTRICITY
MOTOR 12% LOSS
COUPLING 2% LOSS
PUMPS
24% LOSS
VALVES
9% LOSS
PIPES
11% LOSS
WORK DONE ON WATER

Centrifugal pump

Pump performance curve
System

Pump operating point

Typical pump characteristic curves

Effect of Throttling
Pump Curve at
Const. Speed
70 m 82%
A
50 m
Full open valve
42 m
System Curves
Head
Meters
Static Operating Points
Head
300 m3/hr 500 m3/hr
3
Flow (m /hr)

Effect of Throttling
Pump Curve at
Const. Speed Pump Efficiency 77%
70 m Partially B 82%
closed valve
A
50 m
Full open valve
42 m
System Curves C
Head
Meters
Static Operating Points
Head
300 m3/hr 500 m3/hr
3
Flow (m /hr)

Efficiency Curves
28.6 kW
14.8 kW

Power Requirement for Pump
You can use any of the following formulas to make your calculations:

Flow vs Speed
If the speed of the impeller is increased from N1 to N2

rpm,
the flow rate will increase from Q1 to Q2 as per the
given formula:

Head Vs speed
The head developed(H) will be proportional to the square of the
quantity discharged, so that

Head:
H1/H2 = (N12) / (N22)

Example: 100 /H2 = 1750 2 / 3500 2
H2 = 400 Ft

Power Vs Speed
The power is proportional to the cube of speed.

Power(kW):
kW1 / kW2 = (N13) / (N23)

Example: 5/kW2 = 17503 / 35003
kW2 = 40

Flow Control Strategies
Pumps in parallel

Symptoms that indicate potential
opportunity for energy savings
Symptom Likely Reason Best Solution
Throttle valve-controlled Oversized pump Trim impeller, smaller

system impeller, VSD, two speed
derive, lower rpm
Bypass line (partially or Oversized pump Trim impeller, smaller
completely) open impeller, VSD, two speed
drive, lower rpm
Multiple parallel pump Pump use not monitored Install controls
system with the same or controlled
number of pumps
always operating
Constant pump Wrong system design On-off controls
operation in a batch
environment
High maintenance cost Pump operated far away Match pump capacity
(seals, bearings) from BEP with system requirement

Energy Conservation Opportunities in
Pumping Systems
• Ensure adequate NPSH at site of installation
• Operate pumps near best efficiency point.
• Modify pumping system and pumps losses to minimize
throttling.
• Adapt to wide load variation with variable speed drives or
sequenced control of multiple units.
• Stop running multiple pumps - add an auto-start for an on-
line spare or add a booster pump in the problem area.
• Increase fluid temperature differentials to reduce pumping
rates in case of heat exchangers.
• Repair seals and packing to minimize water loss by dripping.
• Balance the system to minimize flows and reduce pump
power requirements.

Energy Conservation Opportunities in
Pumping Systems
• Conduct water balance to minimise water consumption
• Avoid cooling water re-circulation in DG sets, air
compressors, refrigeration systems, cooling towers feed
water pumps, condenser pumps and process pumps.
• In multiple pump operations, carefully combine the operation
of pumps to avoid throttling
• Replace old pumps by energy efficient pumps
• In the case of over designed pump, provide variable speed
drive, or downsize / replace impeller or replace with correct
sized pump for efficient operation.
• Optimise number of stages in multi-stage pump in case of
head margins
• Reduce system resistance by pressure drop assessment and
pipe size optimisation
Compressed Air System

Air Is Free !!!
Compressed Air Is Not Free !!!

Approximately
10% gets to the
point of use!!
Compressed Air Efficiency:

60 to 80% of the power of the prime mover is converted into an
unusable form of energy (HEAT)
And to a lesser extent, into friction, misuse and noise

Types of Air Compressors
• There are three basic types of air compressors:
– Reciprocating (Recip)
– Rotary Screw (Screw)
– Rotary Centrifugal (Centrifugal)
• These types are further defined by:

– the number of compression stages
– method of cooling (air, water, oil)
– drive method (motor, engine, steam, other)
– how they are lubricated (oil, oil-free)
– packaged or custom-built

Reciprocating compressor

Positive-Displacement Compressors –
Reciprocating
• A piston, driven through a crankshaft and connecting rod by an
electric motor reduces the volume in the cylinder occupied by the air
or gas, compressing it to a higher pressure.
• Single-acting compressors have a compression stroke in only one
direction, while double-acting units provide a compression stroke as
the piston moves in each direction.
• Large industrial reciprocating air compressors are double-acting and
water-cooled.
• Multi-stage double-acting compressors are the most efficient
compressors available, and are typically larger, noisier, and more
costly than comparable rotary units.
• Reciprocating compressors are available in sizes from less than 1 hp
to more than 600 hp.

Screw compressor

Positive-Displacement Compressors -
Rotary compressors
• Most commonly used in sizes from about 30-200 hp.
• Most common type of rotary compressor is the helical twin
screw-type (also known as rotary screw or helical lobe).
• Male and female screw-rotors mesh, trapping air, and
reducing the volume of the air along the rotors to the air
discharge point.
• Rotary screw compressors have low initial cost, compact
size, low weight, and are easy to maintain.
• Rotary screw compressors are available in sizes from 3-
600 hp and may be air- or water-cooled.
• Less common rotary compressors include sliding-vane,
liquid-ring, and scroll-type.

Centrifugal Compressor

Dynamic Compressors -
centrifugal
• These compressors raise the pressure of air or gas by
imparting velocity energy and converting it to pressure
energy.
• The centrifugal-type is the most common and is widely
used for industrial compressed air. Each impeller, rotating
at high speed, imparts primarily radial flow to the air or
gas which then passes through a volute or diffuser to
convert the residual velocity energy to pressure energy.
• Some large manufacturing plants use centrifugal
compressors for general plant air, and, in some cases,
plants use other compressor types to accommodate demand
load swings while the centrifugal compressors handle the
base load.

Dynamic Compressors –
Axial and mixed flow
• Axial compressors consist of a rotor with multiple rows of
blades and a matching stator with rows of stationary vanes.
The rotating blades impart velocity energy, primarily in an
axial plane. The stationary vanes then act as a diffuser to
convert the residual velocity energy into pressure energy.
• This type of compressor is restricted to very high flow
capacities and generally has a relatively high compression
efficiency.
• Mixed flow compressors have impellers and rotors which
combine the characteristics of both axial and centrifugal
compressors.

General Selection Criteria for
Compressors
Capacity (m3/h) Pressure (bar)
Type of Compressor
From To From To
Roots power compressor 100 30000 0.1 1
single stage
Reciprocating
- Single / Two stage 100 12000 0.8 12
- Multi stage 100 12000 12.0 700
Screw
- Single stage 100 2400 0.8 13
- Two stage 100 2200 0.8 24
Centrifugal 600 300000 0.1 450

SYSTEM COMPONENTS
• Intake Air Filters : Prevent dust and atmospheric impurities from entering
compressor. Dust causes sticking valves, scored cylinders, excessive wear
etc.
• Inter-stage Coolers : Reduce the temperature of the air (gas) before it
enters the next stage to reduce the work of compression and increase
efficiency. They can be water-or air-cooled.
• After Coolers : Reduce the temperature of the discharge air, and thereby
reduce the moisture carrying capacity of air.
• Air-dryers : Air dryers are used to remove moisture, as air for instrument and
pneumatic equipment needs to be relatively free of any moisture. The
moisture is removed by suing adsorbents or refrigerant dryers, or state of the
art heatless dryers.
• Moisture Traps : Air traps are used for removal of moisture in the
compressed air distribution lines. They resemble steam traps wherein the air
is trapped and moisture is removed.
• Receivers : Depending on the system requirements, one or more air
receivers are generally provided to reduce output pulsations and pressure
variations.

Air Distribution Systems
• The air distribution system links the various components of the compressed air
system to deliver air to the points of use with minimal pressure loss.
• The specific configuration of a distribution system depends on the needs of the
individual plant, but frequently consists of an extended network of main lines,
branch lines, valves, and air hoses.
• The length of the network should be kept to a minimum to reduce pressure
drop.
• Air distribution piping should be large enough in diameter to minimize
pressure drop.
• A loop system is generally recommended, with all piping sloped to accessible
drop legs and drain points.
• When designing an air distribution system layout, it is best to place the air
compressor and its related accessories where temperature inside the plant is the
lowest.
• A projection of future demands and tie-ins to the existing distribution system
should also be considered.

Compressor efficiency
(NK / (K - 1) )(Q × Ps / 0.612) ⎡⎢⎛⎜ Pd P ⎞⎟ ⎤

K -1
Theoretical kW = NK
- 1⎥
⎣⎝ s ⎠ ⎦
N = No. of stages
K = Ratio of specific heats (1.35 for air)
Ps = suction pressure in kg/cm2
Pd = Discharge pressure in kg/cm2
Q = Actual air flow (m3/min.)
Actual kW = √ 3 V I × PF as measured
Efficiency of compressor and motor combination = 100 × Theoretical kW

Actual kW

Energy Efficiency practices in
compressed air systems

Effect of Intake Air temperature on
Power Consumption
I n le t R e la tiv e A ir P ow er Saved
T e m p e r a tu r e ( 0 C ) D e liv e r y (% ) (% )
1 0 .0 1 0 2 .0 + 1 .4
1 5 .5 1 0 0 .0 N il
2 1 .1 9 8 .1 - 1 .3
2 6 .6 9 6 .3 - 2 .5
3 2 .2 9 4 .1 - 4 .0
3 7 .7 9 2 .8 - 5 .0
4 3 .3 9 1 .2 - 5 .8
Every 40C rise in inlet air temperature results in a higher energy consumption by 1 % to
achieve equivalent output. Hence, cool air intake leads to a more efficient compression.

Effect of Pressure Drop Across Air Inlet Filter on
Power Consumption
Pressure Drop Increase in Power
Across air filter Consumption (%)
(mmWC)
0 0
200 1.6
400 3.2
600 4.7
800 7.0
For every 25 mbar pressure lost at the inlet due to choked filters, the
compressor performance is reduced by about 2 percent.

Elevation
Percentage Relative
Barometric Volumetric Efficiency
Altitude
Pressure Compared with Sea Level
Meters
Mbar
At 4 bar At 7 bar
Sea level 1013 100.0 100.0
500 945 98.7 97.7
1000 894 97.0 95.2
1500 840 95.5 92.7
2000 789 93.9 90.0
2500 737 92.1 87.0
It is evident that compressors located at higher altitudes consume more power
to achieve a particular delivery pressure than those at sea level, as the
compression ratio is higher.

Efficacy of Inter and After
Coolers
Imperfect Perfect Chilled Water
Details
Cooling Cooling Cooling
1 Stage inlet temperature 0C 21.1 21.1 21.1
2 Stage inlet temperature 0C 26.6 21.1 15.5
Capacity (m 3/min) 15.5 15.6 15.7
Shaft Power (kW) 76.3 75.3 74.2
Specific energy consumption 4.9 4.8 4.7
kW (m 3/min)
Percent Change + 2.1 - - 2.1
It can be seen from the table that an increase of 5.50C in the inlet to the second stage
results in a 2 % increase in the specific energy consumption. Use of cold water
reduces power consumption.

Power Reduction through
Pressure Reduction
Pressure
Power Reduction (%)
Reduction
Single-
Two-stage Two-
From stage
To (bar) Water- stage Air-
(bar) Water-
cooled cooled
cooled
6.8 6.1 4 4 2.6
6.8 5.5 9 11 6.5
A reduction in the delivery pressure of a compressor would

reduce the power consumption.

Energy Wastage due to Smaller
Pipe Diameter
Pipe Pressure drop (bar) Equivalent power
Nominal per 100 meters losses (kW)
Bore (mm)
40 1.80 9.5
50 0.65 3.4
65 0.22 1.2
80 0.04 0.2
100 0.02 0.1
Typical acceptable pressure drop in industrial practice is 0.3 bar in

mains header at the farthest point and 0.5 bar in distribution system

Discharge of Air through
Orifice
Gauge
Pressure 0.5 mm 1 mm 2 mm 3 mm 5 mm 10 mm 12.5 mm
Bar
0.5 0.06 0.22 0.92 2.1 5.7 22.8 35.5
1.0 0.08 0.33 1.33 3.0 8.4 33.6 52.5
2.5 0.14 0.58 2.33 5.5 14.6 58.6 91.4
5.0 0.25 0.97 3.92 8.8 24.4 97.5 152.0
7.0 0.33 1.31 5.19 11.6 32.5 129.0 202.0

Cost of Air Leakage
Orifice Size KW * Energy Waste

mm Wasted (Rs/Year)
0.8 0.2 8000
1.6 0.8 32000
3.1 3.0 120000
6.4 12.0 480000
* based on Rs. 5 / kWh ; 8000 operating hours; air at 7.0 bar

Steps in simple shop-floor method
for leak quantification
• Shut off compressed air operated equipments (or conduct test when no
equipment is using compressed air).
• Run the compressor to charge the system to set pressure of operation
• Note the sub-sequent time taken for ‘on load’ and ‘off load’ cycles of
the compressors. For accuracy, take ON & OFF times for 8 – 10
cycles continuously. Then calculate total ‘ON’ Time (T) and Total
‘OFF’ time (t).
• The system leakage is calculated as
• System leakage (cmm) = Q × T / (T + t)
• Q = Actual free air being supplied during trial, in cubic
meters per minute
• T = Time on load in minutes
• t = Time unload in minutes

Capacity Assessment in Shop-floor
• Isolate the compressor along with its individual receiver being taken for test from main
compressed air system by tightly closing the isolation valve or blanking it, thus closing
the receiver outlet.
• Open water drain valve and drain out water fully and empty the receiver and the pipe
line. Make sure that water trap line is tightly closed once again to start the test.
• Start the compressor and activate the stop watch.
• Note the time taken to attain the normal operational pressure P2 (in the receiver) from
initial pressure P1.
• Calculate the capacity as per the formulae given below :
P2 − P1 V
Actual Free air discharge Q= × NM 3 / Min.
P0 T
Where
P2 = Final pressure after filling (kg/cm2 a)
P1 = Initial pressure (kg/cm2a) after bleeding
P0 = Atmospheric Pressure (kg/cm2 a)
V = Storage volume in m3 which includes receiver,
after cooler, and delivery piping
T = Time take to build up pressure to P2 in minutes

THANK YOU

07 CentralPulp AlokKumarGoel

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POWER GENERATION, ENERGY

EFFICIENT PUMP AND

Central Pulp & Paper Research Institute

Principle of Thermal Power Generation

High voltage (HV) and extra high voltage (EHV)

E nd u ser C a s c a d e e ffic ie n c y fro m G e n e ra t io n t o e n d u s e r

Central Pulp & Paper Research Institute, Saharanpur

DG SET M TRIVECTOR METER Metering

Figure 1.3 Electrical Distribution System –Single Line Diagram

Central Pulp & Paper Research Institute, Saharanpur

1. During T & D, standard technical losses = 17%

Total Efficiency: 50%

Central Pulp & Paper Research Institute, Saharanpur

In most modern electrical distribution

Central Pulp & Paper Research Institute, Saharanpur

Central Pulp & Paper Research Institute, Saharanpur

Capacitors totaling 410 kVAr installed in

Transformer loading – 913/1500 = 61 %

Central Pulp & Paper Research Institute, Saharanpur

Central Pulp & Paper Research Institute, Saharanpur

a. Reduced kVA (Maximum demand) charges in utility bill.

Central Pulp & Paper Research Institute, Saharanpur

The second arrangement shows

The least expensive method shows

Central Pulp & Paper Research Institute, Saharanpur

Central Pulp & Paper Research Institute, Saharanpur

• A transformer can accept energy at one voltage and deliver it at another

• Primary ampere-turns are equal to secondary ampere-turns

• Voltage regulation of a transformer is the percent increase in voltage from

Central Pulp & Paper Research Institute, Saharanpur

• PTOTAL = PNO-LOAD+ (% Load)2 x PLOAD

Central Pulp & Paper Research Institute, Saharanpur

No load loss = 2 x 2.8 = 5.6

Load loss = 2 x (750)2 x 11.88

Total loss = 17.31 KW

Savings by loading all the 3 transformers = 13200 kWh.

Central Pulp & Paper Research Institute, Saharanpur

Central Pulp & Paper Research Institute, Saharanpur

Central Pulp & Paper Research Institute, Saharanpur

– Switch off equipment when not needed

Central Pulp & Paper Research Institute, Saharanpur

Central Pulp & Paper Research Institute, Saharanpur

Central Pulp & Paper Research Institute, Saharanpur

A typical energy balance in a DG set indicates following break-up:

Input : 100% Thermal Energy

: 24% Coolant Losses

Central Pulp & Paper Research Institute, Saharanpur

Potential WHR = (kWh Output/Hour) × (8 kg Gases / kWh Output)

800 kWh × 8 kg gas generation / kWh output × 0.25 kCal/kgoC

Central Pulp & Paper Research Institute, Saharanpur

100% Load 11.84 kgs/Sec 370oC

90% Load 10.80 kgs/Sec 350oC

70% Load 9.08 kgs/Sec 330oC

60% Load 7.50 kgs/Sec 325oC

Central Pulp & Paper Research Institute, Saharanpur

MOTOR 12% LOSS

WORK DONE ON WATER

Central Pulp & Paper Research Institute, Saharanpur

Central Pulp & Paper Research Institute, Saharanpur

Central Pulp & Paper Research Institute, Saharanpur

Central Pulp & Paper Research Institute, Saharanpur

Central Pulp & Paper Research Institute, Saharanpur

Compressed Air Efficiency: