MODULE – 11: Elasticity

Elasticity: It is the property by which a body offers resistance to external forces tending to change its volume
or shape or both and it will regain its original form when the deforming force is removed.

Perfectly Rigid body: A body is said to be perfectly rigid when it is impossible to alter its shape by the
application of force. But no body is perfectly rigid.

Perfectly Elastic Body: When a body is acted upon by a force or a system of forces, it undergoes changes
in its shape or size. If the body recovers its original dimension completely after withdrawing of the applied force,
then the body is said to be perfectly elastic but no body is perfectly elastic.

Stress:
When a force is applied on a body, internal forces are generated. These internal forces react in a direction
opposite to the forces applied and tend to bring the body to its original state; the restoring force per unit area of
the body is known as stress.
Force
Stress =
Area
If the force is inclined to the surface, then its component, perpendicular to the surface, measured per unit area,
is called normal stress and the component acting along the surface, per unit area, is called tangential or
shearing stress.
(i) Normal Stress: Restoring force per unit area perpendicular to the surface as called normal stress.
(ii) Tangential Stress: Restoring force per unit area parallel to the surface is called tangential stress.

Strain:
The change produced in the dimensions of a body under a system of forces or couples in equilibrium, is called
strain, and is measured by the change per unit length [linear or longitudinal strain], per unit volume [volume
strain], or the angular deformation [shear strain or simply shear] according to the change that takes place in
length, volume or shape of the body.
Therefore, we have three kinds of strain: (i) Longitudinal strain (ii) Volume strain and (iii) Shearing strain

(i) Longitudinal strain: The change in length per unit length is called longitudinal strain. That is if L is the
original length and l is the change in length, then

change in length l
Longitudin al strain = =
original length L

(ii) Volume strain: The change in volume per unit volume is called volume strain. That is if V is the original
volume and v is the change in volume, then

change in volume v
Volume strain = =
original volume V

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(iii) Shear strain: A change in shape without change in volume is known as shear strain. A shear deformation is
shown in adjacent figure. The blacked outline ABCD represents an unstressed block of material. The dashed

area A′B′C ′D′ ’ shows the same block under shear stress. A surface AB is fixed and a force F is applied
parallel to the surface CD, so that the body is deformed by an angle θ . The shear strain is defined as the
ratio of the displacement DD ′ = x of corner D to the transverse dimension AD = h :

x
Shear strain = = tan θ
h
In real-life situations, x is nearly always much smaller than h, tan θ is very
nearly equal to θ (in radians), and the strain is simply the angle θ measured
in radians.
D D
Elastic limit:
The maximum stress up to which a body exhibits the property of elasticity is called the elastic limit. If the applied
force exceeds the maximum stress limit, the body does not regain its original position completely after the
external forces are withdrawn.

In the adjacent figure shows a graph of strain

versus stress for a typical solid bar. The graph is
linear until point A. Unto this point, known as
proportional limit, the strain is proportional to the

θ
stress. The result that strain varies linearly with
stress is known as Hooks law. Point B in the
Figure is elastic limit of the material. If the bar is
stressed beyond this point, it is permanently
deformed. If an even greater stress is applied,
the materials eventually breaks, shown
happening at point C. The ratio of stress to strain
in the linear region of the graph is a constant
called Young’s modulus Y.

(i) Young modulus of elasticity (Y): It is

defined as the ratio of longitudinal stress to longitudinal strain. Thus

Force F
Longitudin al Stress Area
Young ' s mod ulus [Y ] = = = A
Longitudin al Strain Change in length l

FL
Original length L
A
∴ Y= N/m 2

Al

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Bulk Modulus (K): It is the ratio of stress to volume strain. Thus

FV
∴ Bulk modulus [ K] = N/m 2

Av

Shear Modulus or Modulus of rigidity [η]: It is the ratio of shear stress to the shear strain. Thus

F
Shear Stress
∴ Modulus of rigidity [η ] = = A
Shear strain θ
F
∴η =
Aθ

Poisson’s Ratio:
It is a commonly observed fact that when we stretch a string or a wire, it becomes longer but thinner i.e., the
increase in its length is always accompanied by a decrease in its cross section. In other words, a linear or a
tangential strain produced in the wire is accompanied by a traverse or a lateral strain of an opposite kind in a
direction at right angles to the direction of the applied force.
Within the elastic limit, the lateral strain [ β ] is proportional to the linear or tangential strain [ α ] for the material
of a given body and the ratio between the two is a constant, called Poisson’s ratio, for that material. It is
denoted by the letter σ.
β Lateral strain
∴ Poison ' s ratio [σ] = =
α Longitudin al strain

In most cases, a material’s Poisson ratio will range between 0 and 0.5. Among common materials, rubber has a
Poisson ratio very close to 0.5, whereas steel has one of 0.3 and cork is much closer to 0. This is why wine
corks are made of cork: it can withstand the pressure from the neck of the bottle without stretching vertically and
jamming in place.

It is possible to have a negative Poisson ratio. Materials displaying this quality are known as auxetics. With such
materials, stretching them in one direction will actually cause them to expand in other directions. It’s suspected
that living bone tissue is an auxetic, though this is difficult to prove. There are also several man-made auxetic
substances, most notably the polymers used in Gore-Tex waterproof clothing.

Poisson's ratio is used in more complicated ways in several fields of science. When you bend an object in one
direction, Poisson's ratio affects the way the object curves in the perpendicular direction. The ratio also affects
the way stress waves travel through substances such as rock, meaning it has some important uses in geology.

Maximum value of Poison’s Ratio σ :

Let us consider a wire of length L and diameter D. The wire is fixed at one end and a force is applied at the other
end. Consequently the length of the wire increases and the diameter of the wire
decreases.
Suppose, increase in length is dL, decrease in diameter is dD.

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 dD
-
β D
∴ σ = =
α dL
L

 dD  L 
∴ σ = -   -----------------(1)
 dL  D 

The value of Poison’s ratio has no units and mainly depends upon the nature of the material of the body.

Suppose that the volume of the wire remain unchanged after the force has been applied. Initial volume of the
wire,

πD 2
V = L ----------------(2)
 4 
To obtain the maximum value of Poison’s ratio σ we differentiate equation (2):
π
dV =  D 2 dL + 2LDdD 
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If dV = 0 (volume is unchanged by the application of force)
∴ D 2 dL + 2LDdD = 0, Or , 2LDdD = -D 2 dL
 dD  L  1
   = -
 dL  D  2
Putting this value in equation (1), we obtain
 dD  L   1 1
σ max = -    = -  −  =
 dL  D   2 2

This is the maximum possible value of Poisson’s ratio.

(1) Work done for Longitudinal Strain:

Let us consider a wire of length L area of cross-section A and Young’s modulus of elasticity Y. Let l be the
increase in length when a stretching force F is applied. Therefore, work done
l
W = ∫ dW = ∫ Fdl
0
-----------------(3)

We know,

FL
Y =
Al
YA l
∴ F =
L

Putting the value of F in equation (1) we get,

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 l l
YA l YA YA l 2
W = ∫0 L dl =
L ∫0
ldl =
L 2

1  YA l 
W =  l
2  L 
1
∴ W = Fl --------------(4)
2
Work done per unit volume,

W W Fl 1  F  l 
w= = = =   
V AL 2 AL 2  A  L 
1
∴ w = (Stress) (Strain)
2

(2) Work done for Shearing Strain:

Let us consider a cube of length L when a tangential force F is applied to the upper face of the cube (keeping
lower face fixed), the cube is shared through an angle θ . If the tangential stress is T, then

F
T F
η = = A=
θ θ Aθ

∴ F =A θη
Work done

W = ∫ dW = ∫ Fdl ----------(5)

dl
dθ =
For shear strain, L
dl = Ldθ

Then

θ θ
W = ∫ F ( Ldθ ) = ∫ Aηθ ( Ld θ )
0 0

ηAL θ 2
∴ W = - - - - - - - - - - - - - (2)
2

Work done per unit volume,

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 W η ALθ 2 ηθ 2 1
w= = = = (ηθ )θ
V 2AL 2 2
1 F 
∴ w =  θ θ
2  Aθ 
1 F 
=  θ
2 A

1
w = (Stress ) (Shear strain)
2

(3) Work done by Volume Strain:

Let us consider a cube of volume V, area of cross-section A and length L. When a normal stress P is applied,
the change in volume is v.

Therefore, work done

v
W = ∫ dW = ∫ P.dv
0
-----------(1)

P PV Kv
K= = , ∴ P=
Bulk modulus = v v V
V

Therefore,

v v
Kv K Kv 2 1  Kv 
W =∫ dv = ∫ vdv = =  v
0
V V 0
2V 2 V 
1
∴ W = × P× v
2

Work done per unit volume

W Pv 1 v
w = = = xPx
v 2V 2 V
1
∴ w = (Stress) (Volume strain)
2

Deformation of a Cube - Bulk Modulus:

Let us consider a unit cube ABCDEFGH having unit area in each of the six
faces. Let forces Tx, Ty and Tz act perpendicularly to the faces BEHC & AFGD,
ABCD & EFGH and ABEF & CHGD respectively as shown in the figure. Then,
if α be the increase per unit length per unit tension along the direction of the

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force and β , the contraction produced per unit length per unit tension, in a direction perpendicular to the force,
then elongations produced in the edges AB, BE and BC, will obviously be T x .α, T y .α, and T z .α

respectively and the contraction produced perpendicular to them will be T x .β, T y .β, and T z .β . The

lengths of the edges thus become as follows:

AB = 1 + T x .α − T y .β − Tz .β
BE = 1 + T y .α − T x .β − Tz .β
BC = 1 + Tz .α − T x .β − T y .β

Hence the volume of the cube now becomes

[ 1 + T x .α −T y .β −Tz .β ][ 1 + T y .α −T x .β −Tz .β ][ 1 + Tz .α −T x .β −T y .β ]

= 1 + [α − 2 β ][ Tx + T y + Tz ]
neglecting squares and products of α and β, which are very small compared with the other
quantities involved. If

T x = T y = Tz = T

The volume of the cube becomes

1 + 3 [α − 2 β]T .

Therefore, increase in the volume of the cube = 1 + 3T [α − 2 β ] − 1 = 3T [α − 2 β ] .

If, instead of the tension T outwards, we apply a pressure P, compressing the cube, the reduction in its volume
will similarly be 1 + 3 [α −2 β]T , and, therefore,

change in volume 3 P[α − 2 β ]

Volume strain = = = 3 P[α − 2 β ] , since original volume of the cube = 1.
original volume 1

Hence,

stress P 1 1 Y
Bulk Modulus =K = = = = = , [I ]
volume strain 3P[α − 2 β] 3[α − 2 β] 3α[1 − 2 β / α] 3[1 − 2σ]
sin ce Y =1 / α

∴ Compressibility, which is the reciprocal of Bulk Modulus, is, therefore, 3[α −2 β] .

Rigidity Modulus (η ):

Let the upper face ABEG of a cube of each edge L be sheared through an angle θ under a tangential force F
applied to it, as shown in Fig., such that displacement AA’ = BB’ = l, with
diagonal DB increased to DB’ and diagonal AC shortened to A’C.

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 F F
Then tangential stress applied = 2
= =T
L A

l
The shearing strain produced = θ =
L

T
Therefore, modulus of rigidity for the material of the cube = η = .
θ

It can be shown that a shearing stress along AB is equivalent to an equal linear tensile stress along the diagonal
DB and an equal compressive stress along the diagonal AC, at right angles to each other. Thus we have a
tensile stress T along DB and an equal compressive stress T along AC. Since a linear tensile or compressive
strain is always accompanied by a traverse or a lateral strain of an opposite kind in all directions perpendicular
to the direction of the applied force, the effect of the compressive stress along AC is also to increase the length
of diagonal DB.

If, therefore, α and β be the longitudinal and lateral strains per unit stress, respectively, we have extension of
diagonal DB due to tensile stress along it = DB.T.α = L√2. T.α ,  DB = L2 + L2 = L 2

Its extension due to compressive stress along AC = DB.T.β = L√2. T.β

Therefore, total increase in length of diagonal DB = L√2.T.(α + β ), -------------------------- (1)

Let us drop a perpendicular BP from B on to DB’. Then, increase in length of DB is practically equal to PB’.

Clearly, PB’ = BB’ cos BB’P .

Since θ is small, then angle BB’P = 45o, and therefore cos BB’P =1/√2.

So that the increase in length of diagonal DB = l cos45o = l/√2, ------------------------------ (2)

Therefore, L√2.T(α + β ) = l/√2

LT 1 T 1
= , or , =
l 2(α + β ) l 2(α + β )
L
T 1
Or , =η = , .......... ..[ II ]
θ 2(α + β )

Relation connecting the Elastic constants:

If we now imagine a cube of unit edge, acted upon by unit tension along one edge, the extension produced is
α.

Then clearly, stress = 1 and strain = α / 1 = α .

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Therefore, Young’s Modulus = 1 / α , ……………….[III]

From [I], we get

α − 2 β = 1/ 3 K , …………….[iv]
and from [II]
α + β = 1/ 2η , …………[v]
subtracting [iv] from[v], we get
1 1 3 K − 2η
3β = − = ,
2η 3 K 6 Kη
3 K − 2η
or , β= , .......... [vi ]
18 ηK

Again, multiplying [v] by 2 and adding to [iv], we get

1 1 3K +η
3α = + = ,
η 3K 3 Kη
3 K +η 1 3 K +η 1
or , α = , or , = ,  α=
9 Kη Y 9 Kη Y
9 Kη 9 3K η
or , Y = , or , = + ,
3K +η Y Kη Kη
9 3 1
or , = + , .......... ...[ vii ]
Y η K

Equation [vii] gives the relation which connects the three elastic constants.

Limiting value of σ:
We have shown earlier
1 1 Y
η= = =
2(α + β ) 2α[1 + β / α] 2[1 +σ ]
and
Y
K =
3[1 − 2σ ]
From these two we can show that
Y = 3K [1 −2σ] = 2η[1 +σ]
or , 3K [1 −2σ] = 2η[1 +σ]
Case a:
If the Poisson’s ratio σ is a positive quantity, as K and η are always positive,
[1 − 2σ ]  0
or , 2σ 0 or σ  0.5
Case b:
If the Poisson’s ratio σ is a negative quantity, for K and η to be positive,
[1 +σ]  0
or , σ  −1

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It means that the value of σ lies between -1 and +0.5. When, σ = 0.5 , it means that there is no change in
volume and the body is completely incompressible. In practice, the value of σ for most of the isotropic
substances is between 0.2 to 0.4.

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 Problems: Elasticity

1. A wire 1.5 m long has a cross-sectional area of 2.4 mm2. It is hung vertically and stretches 0.32 mm
when a 10-kg block is attached to it. Find (a) the stress, (b) the strain, and (c) Young’s modulus for the
wire.

2. A 500 kg mass in hung from a 3 m steel wire with a cross-sectional area of 0.15 cm 2. How much does
the wire stretch? Y = 2.0x 1011 N/m2

3. A structural steel rod has a radius R of 9.5 mm and a length L of 81 cm. A force F of 6.2 X 10 4 N
stretches it along length. (a) What is the stress in the rod? (b) What is the elongation of the rod under
this load? What is the strain?

4. A solid copper cube has an edge length of 85.5 cm. How much pressure must be applied to the cube to
reduce the edge length to 85.0 cm? The bulk modulus of copper is 1.4x1011 N/m2.

5. A metal wire of length 3 m and diameter 1mm is stretched by weight of 10 kg. If Young’s modulus for its
material be 12.5x1011 dynes/cm2 and σ for it equal to 0.26, calculate the lateral compression produced.

6. (a) A wire, 4 m long and 0.3 mm in diameter, is stretched by a force of 800 gm wt. If the extension in
length amounts to 1.5 mm, calculate the energy stored in the wire. (b) Find the work done in Joules in
stretching a wire of cross-section 1 mm2 and length 2m through 0.1 mm if Young’s modulus for the
material of the wire is 2x1012 dynes/cm2.

7. The young’s modulus of a metal is 2X1011 N/m2 and its breaking stress is 1.078 X 109 N/m2. Calculate
the maximum amount of energy per unit volume which can be stored in the metal when stretched.

8. Calculate the work done per unit volume in stretching a uniform metal wire of area of cross section 10 -6
m2 and length 1.5 m through 4x 10-3 m. Given, Y= 2X1011 N/m2.

9. Find the work done in stretching a uniform metal wire of 1 sq mm cross section and 2 m long through
0.1 mm. Given, Y = 2×1011 N/m2.

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