FUJAIRAH AVIATION ACADEMY Module 6 Licence Category B1 and B2 Materials and Hardware 6.1 Aircraft Materials - FerrousCopyright Notice © Copyright. All worldwide rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form by any other means whatsoever: i.¢. photocopy, electronic, mechanical recording or otherwise without the prior written permission of Total Training Support Ltd. Knowledge Levels — Category A, B1, B2 and C Aircraft Maintenance Licence Basic knowledge for categories A, 81 and B2 are indicated by the allocation of knowledge levels indicators (1, 2 of 3) against each applicable subject, Category © applicants must meet either the category Bt or the category 82 basic knowledge levels. The knowledge level indicators are defined as follows: LEVEL 1 + A familiarisation with the principal elements of the subject Objectives: ‘+The applicant should be familiar with the basic elements of the subject. ‘* The applicant should be able to give a simple description of the whole subject, using common words and examples, ‘The applicant should be able to use typical terms, LEVEL 2 + Ageneral knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject. + An ability to apply that knowledge. Objectives: ‘+The applicant should be able to understand the theoretical fundamentals of the subject. » The applicant should be able to give a general description of the subject using, as appropriate, typical examples. * The applicant should be able to use mathematical formulae In conjunction with physical laws describing the subject. + The applicant should be able to read and understand sketches, drawings and schematics describing the subject. + The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using detailed procedures. LEVEL 3 * Adetalled knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject. ‘+ Acapacity to combine and apply the separate elements of knowiedge in a logical and comprehensive manner. Objectives: © The applicant should know the theory of the subject and Interrelationships with other subjects. ‘+ The applicant should be able to give a detailed description of the subject using theoretical fundamentals and specific examples + The applicant should understand and be able to use mathematical formulae related to the subject. * The applicant should be able to read, understand and prepare sketches, simple drawings and schematics describing the subject ‘* The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using manufacturer's instructions. ‘+ The applicant should be able to interpret results from various sources and measurements and apply corrective action where appropriate. 12 Module 6.1 Aircraft Materials - FerrousTable of Contents Module 6.1 Aircraft Materials - Ferrous 7 Materials Testing 7 Properties of Materials 7 Tensile Testing 9 Compression Test 21 Hardness Tests 21 Impact Testing 25 Creep. 27 Fatigue, 29 Aircraft Materials - Ferrous, 39 Introduction 39 Iron Production 39 Steelmaking 41 Steel 44 Micro-structure of Steel 49 Heat Treatment of Steel 65 Alloying Elements in Steel 61 Identification Tests 67 1 oe Module 6.1 Aircraft Materials - Ferrous Zolal Training Support Lie © Gopyignt 201214 Intentionally Blank Module 6.1 Aircraft Materials - Ferrous Total Training Suppot Lis ‘©Copyright 2012Module 6.1 Enabling Objectives and Certification Statement Certification Statement ‘These Study Notes comply with the syllabus of CAR-66, and the associated Knowledge Levels as specified below: , | CAR-66 Level Objective Reference Bi Bz ‘Aircraft Materials ~ Ferrous 64 fa) 2 7 Characteristics, properties and identification of common alloy steels used in aircraft Heat treatment and application of alloy steals (®) Testing of ferrous materials for hardness, tensile strength, fatigue strength and impact resistance Module 6.1 Aircraft Materials - Ferrous ‘ota! Trang Support Ltd SCopyght 201216 Intentionally Blank Module 6.1 Aircraft Materials - Ferrous ‘olal Training Support Lic ‘© Copy 2012Module 6.1 Aircraft Materials - Ferrous Materials Testing Properties of Materials The various properties of materials can be assessed, by accurate laboratory tests on sample pieces, The terminology, associated with these properties, is outlined in the following paragraphs. Brittleness The tendency of the metal to shatter, without significant deformation. It will shatter under a sudden, low stress but will resist a slowly-applied, higher load Conductivity The ability of a metal to conduct heat, (thermal conductivity) and electricity. Silver and copper are excellent thermal and electrical conductors. Ductility The property of being able to be permanently extended by a tensile force. It is measured during a tensile, or stretching, test, when the amount of stretch (elongation), for a given applied load, provides an indication of a metal’s ductility A ductile metal is one which can be deformed a great deal by tension before it fractures. While all ductile metals are malleable, it does not mean that malleable metals are ductile. Some metals although soft, are also weak in tension and tear apart while being stretched. The ductility of all metals increases as the temperature rises, because they are weaker at high temperatures Elasticity The ability of a metal to return to its original shape and size after the removal of any distorting force, The ‘Elastic Limit’ is the greatest force that can be applied without permanent distortion. Hardness The ability of a metal to resist wear and penetration. It is measured by pressing a hardened steel ball or diamond point into the metal’s surface. The diameter or depth of the resulting indentation provides an indication of the metal’s hardness. Module 6.1 Aircraft Materials - Ferrous 17 Total Training Support Ltd SCopyightsor2Malleability The ease with which the metal can be forged, rolled and extruded without fracture. Stresses, induced into the metal, by the forming processes, have to be subsequently relieved by heat- ireatment, Hot metal is more malleable than coo} metal A malleable metal is one which can be deformed a great deal by compression before it shows signs of cracking. Malleable metals can be rolled, forged or extruded, since these are all processes where the metal is shaped under pressure. Malleability usually increase with temperature, so processes involving pressure are usually hot working processes i.e. they are carried out on heated pieces of metal. The ability to retain a deformation after the load producing it has been removed. Plasticity is, in fact, the opposite of elasticity. Tenacity The property of a metal to resist deformation when subjected to a tensile load. It is proportional to the maximum stress required to cause the metal to fracture, Toughness The ability of a metal to resist suddenly applied loads. A metals toughness is tested by impact with a swinging pendulum of known mass. Strength There are several different measurements of the strength of a metal, as may be seen from the following sub-paragraphs Tensile Strength The ability to resist tension forces applied to the metal Yield Strength The ability to resist deformation. After the metal yields, it is said to have passed its yield point Shear Strength The ability to resist side-cutting loads - such as those, imposed on the shank of a rivet, when the materials itis joining attempt to move apart in a direction normal to the longitudinal axis of the rivet. Bearing Strength The ability of a metal to withstand a crushing force. 18 Module 6.1 Aitcraft Materials - Ferrous Tote Tring Suppor Lis ‘© Copyright 2012Tensile Testing Tensile testing is the most widely-used mechanical test. It involves applying a steadily increasing load to a test specimen, causing it to stretch unti it eventually fractures. Accurate measurements are taken of the load and extension, and the results are used to determine the strength of the material. To ensure uniformity of test resulls, the test specimens used must conform to standard dimensions and finish as laid down by the appropriate Standards Authority (BSI, DIN, ISO etc). The cross-section of the specimen may be round or rectangular, but the relationship between the cross-sectional area and a specified "gauge length", of each specimen, is constant. The gauge length, is that portion of the parallel part of the specimen, which is to be used for measuring the subsequent extension during and/or after the test Tensile Stress (Strength) - Tensile strength in a material is obtained by measuring the maximum load, which the test piece is able to sustain, and dividing that figure by the original cross-sectional area (¢.s.a.) of the specimen. The value derived from this simple calculation is called STRESS. ___Load(N) iginal c.s.a. (mm*) Stress = ress = 5 Note: The units of Stress may be quoted in the old British Imperial (and American) units of Ibf/in®, tont/in® (also PSI and TSI), or the European and SI units such as kN/m?, MN/m? and kPa or MPa. Example Astee! rod, with a diameter of 5 mm, is loaded in tension with a force of 400 N. Calculate the tensile stress. Load 400 400 Area mr x25 Stress = 20-37Nimm* Exercise Calculate the tensile stress in a steel rod, with a cross-section of 10 mm x 4 mm, when itis subjected to a load of 100 N. Exercise Calculate the cross-sectional area of a tie rod which, when subjected to a load of 2,100N, has a stress of 60 Nimm, Note: When calculating stress in large structural members, it may be more convenient to measure load in Mega-Newtons (MN, or N°) and the area in square metres (m’). When using such units, the numerical value is identical to that if the calculation had been made using Newtons and mm? Module 6.1 Aircraft Materials - Ferrous 19 Tot! Trang Support Lis e Copyigit otaie. A Stress of 1 Nimm? = 1 MN/m? Example Astructural member, with a cross-sectional area of 0.5m’, is subjected to @ load of 10 MN. Calculate the stress in the member in; (a) MN/m? and (b) N/mm? Load 10 ‘Area 05 = 20MN/m? (a) Stress = b) 1Nimm? =1MNim? So Stress =20 N/mm? Strain - As the load in the tensile test is increased from zero to a maximum vaiue, the material extends in length. The amount of extension, produced by a given load, allows the amount of induced strain to be calculated. Strain is calculated by measuring the extension and dividing by the original length of the material Note: Both measurements must be in the same units, though, since Strain is a ratio of two lengths, it has no units. Extension Strain = —_—Senston __ Original Length Example An aluminium test piece is marked with a 20 mm gauge length. It is subjected to tensile load until its length becomes 21.15 mm. Calculate the induced strain. Extension = 21.15-20 = 115mm 1-45 Stra = = 0.0575 (no units) 20 Exercise A tie rod 1.5m long under a tensile load of 500 N extends by 12 mm. Calculate the strain. 110 Module 6.1 Aircraft Materials - Ferrous ‘Total Training Support is ‘S.Gopynght 2012Load/Extension Diagrams if @ gradually increasing tensile load is applied to a test piece while the load and extension are continuously measured, the results can be used to produce a Load/Extension diagram or graph (refer to figure 1.1). Obviously a number of different forms of graph may be obtained, depending on the material type and condition, but the example shows a Load/Extension diagram which typifies many metallic materials when stressed in tension. foaa exension Figure 1.1: Load/Extension Diagram The graph can be considered as comprising two major regions. Between points 0 and A, the material is in the Elastic region (or phase), i.e. when the load is removed the material will retum to its original size and shape. In this region, the extension is directly proportional to the applied load, This relationship is known as ‘Hooke's Law’, which states: Within the elastic region, elastic strain is directly proportional to the stress causing it. Point A is the Elastic Limit. Between this point and point B, the material continues to extend until the maximum load is reached (at point B). In this region the material is in the plastic phase. When the load is removed, the material does not return to its original size and shape, but will retain some extension. After point B, the cross-sectional area reduces and the material begins to ‘neck’, The material continues to extend under reduced load until it eventually fractures at point C. Aircraft structural designers’ interest in materials does not extend greatly beyond the elastic phase of materials. Production engineers, however, are greatly interested in material properties beyond this phase, since the forming capabilities of materials are dependent on their properties in the plastic phase. Module 6.1 Aircraft Materials - Ferrous Total Training Suppor Lid © Copyngnt 2012NF Itis normal to consider the relationship of Stress and Strain, rather than Force and Extension, as this makes it easier o compare metals regardless of the cross sectional area of the test piece, and regardless of the length of the test piece, nor how the test piece changes in cross section as it is stretched. Stress is the Force per unit area, Strain is the extension per unit length of test piece, ‘An examination of a Stress/Strain graph, obtained from the results of a tensile test on mild steel (refer to figure 1.2), shows that considerable plastic extension occurs without any increase in load shortly after the elastic limit is reached. The onset of increasing extension, without a corresponding increase in load, at point “A’, is known as the ‘yield point’ and, if this level of stfess is reached, the metal is said to have ‘yielded’. This is a characteristic of mild stee! and a few other, relatively ductile, materials. Stress Strain Figure 1.2: Load/Extension Diagram for Mild Stee! If, after passing the yield point, the load is further increased, it may be seen that mild steel! is capable of withstanding this increase until the Ultimate Tensile Stress (UTS) is reached (point 'B’), Severe necking then occurs and the material will fracture at a reduced load. The unexpected ability of mild steel to accept more load after yielding is due to strain-hardening of the material. Work-hardening of many materials is often carried out to increase their strength 112 Module 6.1 Aircraft Materials - Ferrous Tels Training Suopot 1e ‘@ Gopyighs 2012sample breaks | yield point - Y | / i senate svn strain Figure 1.3: Typical stress-strain graph Stee, Prastic “ Ultimate tensile ‘ strength UTS? 6 Yield excess Yi Uniform ow Necking ak Fracture fr elongation Figure 1.4: Stress/Strain graph for Duralumin, showing the Yield point, Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS, Elastic and Plastic regions). Module 6.1 Aircraft Materials - Ferrous Tota Trainng Support Lie (© Copynght 2012As previously stated, various forms of load/extension curves may be constructed for other materials (refer to figure 1.5), and their slopes will depend on whether the materials are brittle, elastic or plastic. (a) (c) plastic _ small eee 27 elongation large Yd a A elongation Figure 1.5: Load/Extension Graphs for Brittle, Elastic and Plastic Materials (a) represents a brittle material (e.g. glass) (b) represents a material with some elasticity and limited plasticity (e.g, high-carbon steel) (c) represents a material with some elasticity and good plasticity (e.g. soft aluminium). Module 6.1 Aircraft Materials - Ferrous Total Training Support Ltd ‘© Copyignt 2012strain Figure 1.6: Stress-strain graphs for a brittle and a ductile material Module 6.1 Aircraft Materials - Ferrous “otal Training Support Ltd © Copyignt 2012 1415Ductility After fracture of a specimen, following tensile testing, an indication of material ductility is arrived at, by establishing the amount of plastic deformation which occurred. The two indicators of ductility are, ‘+ Elongation * Reduction in area (at the neck) Elongation is the more reliable, because it is easier to measure the extension of the gauge length than the reduction in area. The standard measure of ductility is to establish the percentage elongation after fracture. Final Extension Percentage el ti F< 100 19° elongation Original Gauge Length“ Example Ina tensile test, on a specimen with 150.5 mm gauge length, the length over the gauge marks at fracture were 176.1 mm. What was the percentage elongation? inal Ext 1499 = 178-1- 180.5 Gauge Length 150-5 Elongation 100 = 17.009% =17% Proof Stress Many materials do not exhibit a yield point, so a substitute value must be employed. The value chosen is the ‘Proof Stress’, which is defined as The tensile stress, which is just sufficient to produce a non-proportional elongation, equal to a specified percentage of the original gauge length. Usually a value of 0.1% or 0.2% is used for Proof Stress, and the Proof Stress is then referred to as the 0.1% Proof Stress or the 0.2% Proof Stress respectively. The Proof Stress may be acquired from the relevant Load/Extension graph (refer to figure 1.7) as follows: If the 0.2% Proof Stress is required, then 0.2% of the gauge length is marked on the extension axis. A line, parallel to the straight-line portion of the graph, is drawn until it intersects the non- linear portion of the curve. The corresponding load is then read from the graph. Proof Stress is calculated by dividing this load by the original cross-sectional area. 0.1% Proof Stress will produce permanent set equivalent to one thousandth of the specimen's original length, 0.2% Proof Stress will produce permanent set equivalent to one five hundredth of the original length, Module 6.1 Aircraft Materials - Ferrous ota Training Support te “©Copyright 20120 0.2% Strain, % Figure 1.7: Acquiring the Proof Stress from a Load/Extension Graph Stiffness Within the elastic range of a material, if the Strain is compared to the Stress causing that extension, it will provide a measure of stiffnessirigidity or flexibility. Stress (¢) Youngs Modulus, ——_— i Strain (é) stress This value, which is of great importance to designers, is known as ‘the Modulus of Elasticity, ‘or Young's Modulus’, and is signified by use of the ! stress symbol E Thus E = Stress divided by Strain and, since Strain Coen has no units, the unit for "Eis the same as Stress. strain ie. Ibffin?, tonffin? (also PSI and TSI), or the European and SI units such as kN/m?, MNim? and kPa or MPa Figure 1.8: Young's Modulus is the Lunes Qfadient of the stress-strain graph before Strain the yield point & Module 6.1 Aircraft Materials - Ferrous Tota Training Suppor Lid 2 Copynght 2012cee The actual numerical value is usually large, as itis a measure of the stress required to theoretically double the length of @ specimen (if it did not break first). A typical value of E for steel would be 30 x 10° PSI. or 210,000 MNim? The Tensile Test Machine Tensile testing machines vary both in design and capacity. Large machines capable of applying forces up to 1 MN are in use. The small Hounsfield tensiometer has a capacity of 20 kN. Figure 1.9: Hounsfield Tensiometer 1418 Module 6.1 Aircraft Materials - Ferrous “Total Traling Sup id @ copy 2012aussen AuereRS (ror RECOIL) Figure 1.10: Hounsfield Tensiometer components Module 6.1 Aircraft Materials - Ferrous “otal Training Suppor Lia 8 Copyignt 2012ee we Summary of the Information Derived from the Tensile Test The following is the results from a tensile test of a steel specimen. Load-extension curves for steel Symbols used Weatond W, selastic lirit Ws yield toad W, = fracture loud W,, =maximum load W, = proof load train xextension sist ‘oung’s modulus ‘Tensile strengtit TS ana (Nimoy *) ‘Grigtal aiea of rows section w, ‘ea of eross-ection 8? Proof stress PS = Stress for a specified strain (e.g. 0.1%), (Nmm -*) Yield stress ¥S= Extension at toad / (mm) ‘Original gauge length (rmm} Stress in elastic region Corresponding strain Strain (mm) Young's modulus E= Percentage elongation (Eiong. %)=. 100% Original area of cross-section — Area at fracture Pete fon in areas" » 100% smtsge reduction isa Ouginal area 00" 1-20 Module 6.1 Aircraft Materials - Ferrous “ott Taning Suppo Lid ‘@ Copynght 2012Compression Test Machines for compression testing are often the same as those used for tensile testing, but the test specimen is in the form of a short cylinder. The Load/Deflection graph in the elastic phase for ductile materials is similar to that in the tensile test. The value of ‘E* is the same in compression as it is in tension, Compression testing is seldom used as an acceptance test for metallic or plastic materials (except for cast iron), Compression testing is generally restricted to building materials and research into the properties of new materials. Hardness Tests Hardness is the resistance of a material to indentation, and by pressing a suitably shaped indenter into the surface of the material being tested, a comparison of hardness values can be made. Hardness values are normally required by the material specification, and tests are also carried out to check case hardening and hardening and tempering at the various stages of manufacture, The Brinell Test In this test a hardened steel balll is forced into the surface of a test piece by means of a suitable standard load. The diameter of the impression is then measured using a calibrated microscope an the Brinell Hardness Number (H) is found from: Load (P) Area of curved surface of the impression ‘eal indicator The Brinell test was devised by a Swedish researcher at the beginning of the 20th century. The test comprises forcing a hardened steel ball indentor into the surface of the sample using a standard load as shown in figure 1.8 The diameter/ioad ratio is selected to provide an impression of an acceptable diameter. The ball may be 10, 5 or 1mm in diameter, the load may be 3000, 750 or 30 kgf, The load, P, is related to the diameter, D by the relationship P/D and this ratio has been standardised for different metals in order that test results are accurate and reproducible. For steel the ratio is 30:1 - for example a 10mm ball can be used with a 3000kgf load or a 1mm bail with a 30kgf load. For aluminium alloys the ratio is 5:1. impression Figure 1.11: The Brinell Hardness Test indentor Module 6.1 Aircraft Materials - Ferrous 121 “otal Teaining Support Lit 8 Copyright 2012& ww The Vickers Pyramid Hardness Test The Vickers hardness test is similar to the Brinell in that an impression is made by applying a load to an indenter. The hardness number is then obtained from measurement of the impression. The indenter is a diamond in the shape of a square based pyramid and the measurement is made across the diagonal of the impression. futerum diamond pyramid specimen indenter ! \ timing ~~ mechanism rigid specimen table Figure 1.12: The Vickers Pyramid tester An advantage of the Vickers hardness test is that hardness values for very hard materials are more accurate than the corresponding Brinell numbers. This is because a diamond does not deform under high pressure, as does a steel ball, and so the result will be more accurate. square based pyramida’ indenter > "impression sample ~ (a) Vickers indentation {e) measurement of impression ciagonals Figure 1.13: The Vickers Pyramid indenter 1-22 Module 6.1 Aircraft Materials - Ferrous Total Training Suppor Lid ‘© Copyrght 2012The diagonal length of the square impression is measured by means of a microscope which has a variable slit built into the eyepiece As illustrated in figure 1.13 (b) two diagonals, di and d2 , are measured, averaged and the surface area calculated then divided into the load applied. As with the Brinell test the diagonal measurement is converted to a hardness figure by referring to a set of tables. The hardness may be reported as Vickers Hardness number (VHN), Diamond Pyramid Number (DPN) or, most commonly, HVx, where 'xx' represents the load used during the test. The width of the slip is adjusted so that its edges line up with the comers of the impression, The diagonal length of the impression is then obtained from a digital counter geared to the ‘Movement of the slip. The reading is converted to Vickers Pyramid Hardness Number (VPN) by reference to tables. The higher the number the harder the material. The specified time of contact between the indenter and the test piece in both Vickers and Brinell hardness tests is 15 seconds. The Rockwell Test The Rockwell Test was developed in the U.S.A. It is used mainly for the rapid routine testing of finished materials, the hardness number being indicated directly on a dial, no measurement of the diameter of the impression is required. Depa owen inane ced ymin bad RDN. ao SS LR Daps sowie ~ indenter Is. Incrementin depth due to increment in Toad isthe ingar measurement that ‘forms the basis of Rockwell hardness tester readings Figure 1.14: The Rockwell test machine and its indenter Module 6.1 Aircraft Materials - Ferrous 1-28 Total Traring Suppor Ltt conyignt 2012‘There are two types of Rockwell tests: + Rockwell: the minor load is 10 kgf, the major load is 60, 100, oF 150 kgf. + Superficial Rockwell: the minor load is 3 kgf and major loads are 15, 30, or 45 kgf. In both tests, the indenter may be either a diamond cone or steel ball, depending upon the characteristics of the material being tested Principal of the Rockwell Test: 41. The indenter moves down into position on the part surface 2. Aminor load is applied and a zero reference position is established 3. The major load is applied for a specified time period (dwell time) beyond zero 4. The major load is released leaving the minor load applied The resulting Rockwell number represents the difference in depth from the zero reference position as a result of the application of the major load. Rockwell Scales There are several scales associated with the Rockwell test. The ‘B’ and 'C’ scales are most common. The ‘C’ scale is used for harder materials and uses a 150 kg load. The ‘B’ scale is used on softer materials and uses a 100 kg load. Scale units are identical but the ‘C’ scale zero coincides with the ‘B’ scale 30. Hardness Comparisons Material BHN HV Rockwell Aluminium alloy 400 100 BST Mild steel 130 130 B73 Cutting tools 650 697 C60 Table 1.1: Comparative hardness values Hardness Testing on Aircraft Itis not normal to use Brinell, Rockwell or Vickers testing methods on aircraft in the hangar. There are, however, portable Hardness Testers, which may be used to test for material hardness on items such as aircraft wheels, after an over-heat condition, because the over-heat condition may cause the wheel material to become soft or partially annealed. 1-24 Module 6.1 Aircraft Materials - Ferrous Tota ering Support Lid ‘© Copyrght 2012Impact Testing Impact tests are used to indicate the toughness of a material and most importantly its ability to resist mechanical shock, to ensure that temper brittleness has not been introduced during heat treatments. Toughness is, broadly, a measure of the amount of energy required to cause an item - a test piece or a bridge or a pressure vessel - to fracture and fail. The more energy that is required then the tougher the material, The area beneath a stress/strain curve produced from a tensile test is a measure of the toughness of the test piece under slow loading conditions. However, in the context of an impact test we are looking at notch toughness, a measure of the meta''s resistance to brittle or fast fracture in the presence of a flaw or notch and fast loading conditions. There are two types of machine used for testing aircraft materials, both of which use a pendulum weight to fracture the specimen. The energy absorbed by the specimen is measured from the angie through which the pendulum swings after causing the fracture. The IZOD test is required by most of the British material specifications, but where the test piece must be tested at high or low temperatures the CHARPY test is used. The test is carried out within the 6_ seconds of removal of the test piece from the heating or cooling bath. Machines are available which carry out both the Izod and Charpy tests Charpy hammer position rod hammer position | | | | | | 1 Figure 1.15: The Charpy and Izod Impact test machines Module 6.1 Aircraft Materials - Ferrous: 1:25 Tota Training Suppor Lia ©Copyright 2012Most materials show a drop in toughness with a reduction in temperature, though some materials (certain steels in particular) show a rapid drop in toughness as the temperature is progressively reducad. This temperature range is called the Transition Zone, and components, which are designed for use at low temperature, should be operated above the material's Transition Temperature. Nickel is one of the most effective alloying elements for lowering the Transition Temperature of steels Figure 1.16: Izod Impact test machine 1-26 Module 6.1 Aircraft Materials - Ferrous ‘otal Training Support Ltd © Copyigt 2092Creep Creep can be defined as the continuing deformation, with the passage of time, of materials subjected to prolonged stress. This deformation is plastic and occurs even though the acting stress may be well below the yield stress of the material. At temperatures below 0.4T (where T is the melting point of the material in Kelvin), the creep rate is very low, but, at higher temperatures, it becomes more rapid. For this reason, creep is commonly regarded as being a high-temperature phenomenon, associated with super-heated steam plant and gas turbine technology. However, some of the soft, low-melting point materials will creep significantly at, or a little above, ambient temperatures and some aircraft materials may creep when subjected to over-heat conditions. Creep in Metals When a metallic material is suitably stressed, it undergoes immediate elastic deformation. This is then followed by plastic strain, which occurs in three stages (refer to Fig. 9): + Primary Creep - begins at a relatively rapid rate, but then decreases with time as strain- hardening sets in * Secondary Creep - the rate of strain is fairly uniform and at its lowest value. © Tertiary Creep - the rate of strain increases rapidly, finally leading to rupture. This final stage coincides with gross necking of the component, prior to failure. The rate of creep is at a maximum in this phase. rupture x i creep strain & Figure 1.17: Stages of creep Module 6.1 Aircraft Materials - Ferrous er ‘Total Training Suppor te Seopyigh 2012Effect of Stress and Temperature on Creep Both stress and temperature have an effect on creep. At low temperature or very low stress, primary oreep may occur, but this falls to a negligible value in the secondary stage, due to strain-hardening of the material. At higher stress and/or temperature, however, the rate of secondary creep will increase and lead to tertiary creep and inevitable failure. It is clear, from the foregoing, that short-time tensile tests do not give reliable information for the design of structures, which must carry static loads over long periods of time, at elevated temperatures. Strength data, determined from long- time creep tests (up to 10,000 hours), are therefore essential Although actual design data are based on the long-time tests, short-time creep tests are sometimes used as acceptance tests The Effect of Grain Size on Creep Since the creep mechanism is partly due to microscopic flow along the grain boundaries, creep resistance is improved by increased grain size, due to the reduced grain boundary region per unit volume. It is mainly for this reason that some modern, high-performance turbine blades are being made from directionally solidified (and, alternatively, improved single-crystal) castings. Creep in Plastics Plastics are also affected by creep and show similar, though not identical, behaviour to that described for metals. Since most plastics possess lower thermal properties than metals, the choice of plastic for important applications, particularly at elevated temperature, must take creep considerations into account. 1-28 Module 6.1 Aircraft Materials - Ferrous Tota eining Support Lid ‘© Cooynght 2012Fatigue An in-depth survey, in recent years, revealed that over 80 percent of failures of engineering components were caused by fatigue. Consequences of modem engineering have led to increases in operating stresses, temperatures and speeds. This is particularly so in aerospace and, in many instances, has made the fatigue characteristics of materials more significant than their ordinary, static strength properties. Engineers became aware that alternating stresses, of quite small amplitude, could cause failure in components, which were capable of safely carrying much greater, steady loads. This phenomenon of small, alternating loads causing failure was likened to a progressive weakening of the material, over a period of time and hence the attribution of the term ‘fatigue’. Very few constructional members are immune from it, and especially those operating in a dynamic environment Experience in the aircraft industry has shown that the stress cycles, to which aircraft are subjected, may be very complex, with occasional high peaks, due to gust loading of aircraft wings. For satisfactory correlation with in-service behaviour, full-size or large-scale mock-ups must be tested in conditions as close as possible to those existing in service Fatigue Testing An experiment, conducted in 1861, found that a wrought iron girder, which could safely sustain mass of 12 tons, broke when a mass of only 3 tons was raised and lowered on the girder some 3x10° times. [twas also found that there was some mass, below 3 tons, which could be raised and lowered ‘on to the beam, a colossal number (infinite) of times, without causing any problem: ‘Some years later, a German engineer (Wohier), did work in this direction and eventually developed a useful fatigue-testing machine which bears his name and continues fo be used in industry. The machine uses a test piece, which is rotated in a chuck and a force is applied at the free end, at right angles to the axis of rotation (refer to figure 1.18). The rotation thus produces a reversal of stress for every revolution of the test piece. Module 6.1 Aircraft Materials - Ferrous 1-29 Tol Tring Support Lts copyright 2012[ ) wane | ae coun f, 2 © — Figure 1.18: Fatigue testing machine Various other types of fatigue testing are also used e.g. cyclic-torsional, tension-compression etc. Exhaustive fatigue testing, with various materials, has resulted in a better understanding of the fatigue phenomenon and its implications from an engineering viewpoint. S-N Curves One of the most useful end-products, from fatigue testing, is an S-N curve, which shows, graphically, the relationship between the amount of stress (S), applied to a material, and the number of stress cycles (N), which can be tolerated before failure of the material Using a typical S-N curve, for a steel material (refer to figure 1.19), it can be seen that, if the stress is reduced, the steel will endure a greater number of stress cycles. The graph also shows that a point is eventually reached where the curve becomes virtually horizontal, thus indicating that the material will endure an infinite number of cycles at a particular stress level This limiting stress is called the ‘Fatigue Limit’ and, for steels, the fatigue limit is generally in the region of 40% to 60% of the value of the static, ultimate tensile strength (U.T.S.) 130 Module 6.1 Aircraft Materials - Ferrous “ota Tianing Suppor Ls Se Spynane sate