FALLACIES

1. Equivocation - The fallacy of equivocation is committed when a term is used in

two or more different senses within a single argument.

Example: 11 is a number
My grandmother is now number
Therefore, my grandmother is 11.

2. Accent - A fallacy of accent occurs when a statement creates unnecessary

ambiguity because of a shift of emphasis either in spoken or written words.

Example: The anthropologists went to a remote area and took photographs of

some native women, but they weren't developed.

3. Composition - The fallacy of Composition is committed when a conclusion is

drawn about a whole based on the features of its constituents when, in fact, no
justification provided for the inference.

Example: Water is colorless

Earth is made up of water
Therefore, Earth is colorless.

4. Division - The fallacy of Division is committed when a person infers that what is
true of a whole must also be true of its constituents and justification for that inference
is not provided.

Example: Table salt is safe to eat

Table salt id made of sodium and chloride
Therefore, sodium and chloride are safe to eat.

5. Word Construction - This fallacy infers a similarity of meaning from the

similarity of the material pattern of the two words.

Example: People of Taiwan are called Taiwanese

People of Japan are called Japanese
Therefore, people of Philippines are called Philippinese.

6. Argumentum ad Hominem - the fallacy of attacking the character or

circumstances of an individual who is advancing a statement or an argument instead
of trying to disprove the truth of the statement or the soundness of the argument.

Example: Robert proposed a program for empowering women

But, Robert buttered his wife
Therefore, Robert’s proposal is confusing.
7. Argumentum ad Baculum - this fallacy makes an implict or explicit threat of
physical or psychological violence against others if they refuse to accept the
conclusions offered.

Example: If you drive while drunk, you will be put in jail

You want to avoid going to jail
Therefore, you will not drive while drunk

8. Argumentum ad Populum - The fallacy of attempting to win popular assent to a

conclusion by arousing the feeling and enthusiasms of the multitude.

Example: I passed a bill

9 out of 10 members of the committee favor the bill
Therefore, my bill is a good idea.

9. Argumentum ad Ignorantiam - A fallacy committed when one argues that

something must be true on the basis that it has not been proven false and vice-
versa.

Example: Robi saw an alien

There is no evidence that aliens don’t exist
Therefore, aliens exist.

10. Argumentum ad Verecundiam - A fallacy of defective induction, where it

is argued that a statement is correct because the statement is made by a person or
source that is commonly regarded as authoritative.

Example: Anne Curtis is endorsing whitening pills

Maybe, she’s white because of it
Therefore, the whitening pills are effective.

11. Argumentum ad Verecundiam - A fallacy committed when pity or a

related emotion such as sympathy or compassion is appealed to for the sake of
getting a conclusion accepted.

Example: I should get at least a grade of 3.00

So I can still acquire scholarship
Therefore, my professors will give me high grades.
12. Black-and-white fallacy - Arguing (a) with the use of sharp ("black-and-
white") distinctions despite any factual or theoretical support for them, or (b) by
classifying any middle point between the extremes ("black-and-white") as one of the
extremes.
Examples: "If he is an atheist then he is a decent person."
"He is either a conservative or a liberal."
"He must not be peace-loving, since he participated in picketing the
American embassy."

13. Fallacy of accident - Also called by its Latin name a dicto simpliciter asd
dictum secundum quid. (a) Applying a general rule or principle to a particular
instance whose circumstances by "accident" do not allow the proper application of
that generalization.

Example: "It is a general truth that no one should lie.

Therefore, no one should lie if a murderer at the point of a knife
asks you for information you know would lead to a further murder."

14. Fallacy of begging the question - Arriving at a conclusion from

statements that themselves are questionable and hae to be proved but are assumed
true.

Example: The universe has a beginning. Every thing that has a beginning has
a beginner. Therefore, the universe has a beginner called God.
This assumes (begs the question) that the universe does indeed
have a beginning and also that all things that have a beginning
have a beginner. (b) Assuming the conclusion ar part of the
conclusion in the premises of an argument. Sometimes called
circular reasoning, vicious circularity, vicious circle fallacy
[Continental Philosophy-- sorry, I just couldn't resist]. Example:
"Everything has a cause. The universe is a thing. Therefore, the
universe is a thing that has a cause." (c) Arguing in a circle. One
statement is supported by reference to another statement which is
itself supported by reference to the first statement [such as a
coherentist account of knowledge/truth]. Example: "Aristocracy is
the best form of government because the best form of government
if that which has strong aristocratic leadership.”

15. Fallacy of complex question - (a) Asking questions for which either a
yes or no answer will incriminate the respondent. The desired answer is already
tacitly assumed in the question and no qualification of the simple answer is allowed.

Example: "Have you discontinued the use of opiates?" (b) Asking questions
that are based on unstated attitudes or questionable (or unjustified)
assumptions. These questions are often asked rhetorically of the
 respondent in such a way as to elicit an agreement with those
attitudes or assumptions from others. Example: "How long are you
going to put up with this brutality?"
16. Fallacy of the beard - Arguing (a) that small or minor differences do not
(or cannot) make a difference, or are not (or cannot be) significant, or (b) arguing so
as to find a definite point at which something can be named.

Example: Insisting that a few hairs lost here and there do not indicate
anything about my impending baldness; or trying to determine how
many hairs a person must have before he can be called bald (or not
bald).

17. Genetic fallacy - Arguing that the origin of something is identical with that
thing with that from which it originates.

Example: Consciousness orinates in neural processes. Therefore,

consciousness is (nothing but) neural processes. Sometimes
referred to as the nothing-but fallacy, or the REDUCTIVE
FALLACY. (b) Appraising or explaining something in terms of its
origin, or source, or beginnings. (c) Arguing that something is to be
rejected because its origins are [unknown] and/or suspicious.

18. Fallacy of accident - Also called by its Latin name a dicto simpliciter asd
dictum secundum quid. (a) Applying a general rule or principle to a particular
instance whose circumstances by "accident" do not allow the proper application of
that generalization.

Example: "It is a general truth that no one should lie. Therefore, no one
should lie if a murderer at the point of a knife asks you for
information you know would lead to a further murder."
19. Converse accident - The fallacy of considering certain exceptional cases
and generalizing to a rule that fits them alone. Note that the fallacy of converse
accident is the opposite of accident.

Example: Lasallian watch Showtime Live on Friday.

They say they would rather be there than watching TV.
Therefore, Lasallian don’t watch TV on Friday.

20. Hasty generalization - Hasty generalization is a logical fallacy of faulty

generalization by reaching an inductive generalization based on
insufficient evidence. It commonly involves basing a broad conclusion upon
the statistics of a survey of a small group that fails to sufficiently represent the whole
population. Its opposite fallacy is called slothful induction, or denying the logical
conclusion of an inductive argument.

Example: A girl from England went to US,

She saw there 2 white squirrels.
Therefore, Squirrels in America is white.

21. Consensus Gentium - Consensus Gentium is Latin for "agreement of the

people."Such an argument rests its conclusion on the fact that people believe the
conclusion. If there is universal agreement of the truth of a proposition, then, the
argument goes, the proposition is likely to be true. Of course, the fact that people
hold a particular belief, even if universally believed, is an insufficient warrant or
justification for the belief. It was once universally held that the Earth was the center
of the universe, and that the Sun orbited around it. The fact that people believed this
proposition, did not make it true.

Example: Brown eyes people are beautiful.

Ela has brown eyes.
Therefore, Ela is beautiful.

22. Pragmatic - Arguing that something is true because it has practical effects
upon people: it makes them happier, easier to deal with, more moral, loyal, stable.

Example: A rebel life of a people is the only thing they live for.
Cigarettes are one of their vices that causes to their rebel life.
Therefore, they can’t live without cigarettes.

23. Irrelevant purpose - Arguing against something on the basis that it has
not fulfilled its purpose (although in fact that was not its intended purpose).

Example: All children should have a lot of attention from their parents.
Parents who work full-time cannot give a lot of attention to their
children.
Therefore, mothers should not work full-time.
24. Straw man - Presenting an opponent's position in as weak or
misrepresented a version as possible so that it can be easily refuted.

Example: My secretary Bea will resign tomorrow without any valid reasons.
I don’t allow her to resign because I am the president.
Therefore, she doesn’t have the right to resign.

25. False cause - Something is identified as the cause of an event, but it has
not actually been shown to be the cause.

Example: It is dark now,

It is very dangerous.
But, it is not the dark that causes danger.