NDT Methods used in Quality Controls

Nondestructive testing is one quality control function and complements other,

long-established methods. Nondestructive testing is a branch of the materials
sciences that is concerned with all aspects of the uniformity, quality and
serviceability of materials and structures. The science of nondestructive testing
incorporates all the technology for detection and measurement of significant
properties, including discontinuities, in items ranging from research specimens
to finished hardware and products. By definition, nondestructive techniques are
the means by which materials and structures may be inspected without
disruption or impairment of serviceability.

By another definition, nondestructive testing is the testing of materials for

surface or internal flaws or metallurgical condition without interfering in any way
with the integrity of the material or its suitability for service.

The technique can be applied on a sampling basis for individual investigation or

may be used for 100 percent checking of material in a production quality control
system.
Five nondestructive testing methods are most common, and each has
advantages and disadvantages that will determine whether it is suitable for your
particular testing application. These techniques are:
1. Radiography
2. Magnetic particle crack detection
3. Dye penetrant testing
4. Ultrasonic flaw detection
5. Eddy current and electromagnetic testing

Radiography
Radiographic testing can detect internal defects in ferrous and nonferrous
metals. X-rays, generated electrically, and gamma rays emitted from radioactive
isotopes penetrate radiation that is absorbed by the material they pass through.
The greater the material thickness, the greater the ray absorption. These rays
help form a latent image that can be developed and fixed in a similar way to
normal photographic film.
Tools. Various radiographic and photographic accessories are necessary,
including radiation monitors, film markers, image quality indicators, and
darkroom equipment. Radiographic film and processing chemicals also are
required.

Advantages. In radiographic testing, information is presented pictorially. A

permanent record is provided, which can be viewed at a time and place distant
from the test. This type of testing is useful for thin sections and is suitable for
any material. Sensitivity is declared on each film.
Disadvantages. Radiography is not suitable for several types of testing
situations. For example, radiography is inappropriate for surface defects and for
automation, unless the system incorporates fluoroscopy with an image
intensifier or other electronic aids. Radiography generally can't cope with thick
sections, and the testing itself can pose a possible health hazard. Film proc-
essing and viewing facilities are necessary, as is an exposure compound. With
this method, the beam needs to be directed accurately for 2-D defects. Also,
radiographic testing does not indicate the depth of a defect below the surface.

Magnetic Particle Inspection

Magnetic particle inspection can detect surface and near-surface
discontinuities in magnetic material, mainly ferritic steel and iron. The principle
is to generate magnetic flux in the article to be examined, with the flux lines
running along the surface at right angles to the suspected defect. Where the
flux lines approach a discontinuity, they will stray out into the air at the mouth of
the crack. The crack edge becomes magnetic attractive poles, north and south.
These have the power to attract finely divided particles of magnetic material,
such as iron fillings. Usually these particles are an iron oxide 20 to 30 microns
in size. They are suspended in a liquid that provides mobility for them on the
surface of the test piece, assisting their migration to the crack edges. However,
in some instances they can be applied in a dry powder form.
Tools. Basically, magnetic crack detection equipment takes two forms. First, for
test pieces that are part of a large structure, or for pipes and heavy castings, for
example, that can't be moved easily, the equipment takes the form of just a
power pack to generate a high current. For factory applications on smaller,
more manageable test pieces, bench-type equipment — with a power pack, an
indicating ink system that recirculates the fluid and facilities to grip the
workpiece and apply the current flow or magnetic flux flow in a methodical,
controlled manner— generally is preferred.

Advantages. Magnetic particle inspection generally is simple to operate and

apply. This testing is quantitative, and it can be automated, apart from viewing.
However, modern developments in automatic defect recognition can be used in
parts with simple geometries, such as billets and bars. In this case, a special
camera captures the defect indication image and processes it for further display
and action.
Disadvantages. This type of nondestructive testing is restricted to
ferromagnetic materials, as well as to surface or near-surface flaws. Magnetic
particle inspection is not fail-safe — lack of indication can mean that no defects
exist, or that the process wasn't carried out properly.

Dye Penetrant Testing

Dye penetrant testing is used frequently to detect surface-breaking
flaws in nonferromagnetic materials. The part to be tested must be cleaned
chemically, usually by vapor phase, to remove all traces of foreign material,
grease, dirt, and other contaminants from the surface, generally, but also from
within the cracks. Next, the penetrant — a fine, thin oil usually dyed bright red
or ultraviolet fluorescent — is applied and allowed to remain in contact with the
surface for about 15 minutes. Capillary action draws the penetrant into the
crack during this period. The surplus penetrant on the surface then is removed
completely, and a thin coating of powdered chalk is applied. After the
appropriate development time, the chalk draws the dye out of the crack to form
a visual — magnified in width — indication in contrast to the background.
Tools. Various substances can be used and may be applied in many ways,
from simple application with aerosol spray cans to more sophisticated means,
such as dipping in large tanks on an automatic basis. More sophisticated
methods require tanks, spraying, and drying equipment.
Advantages. A quantitative analysis, dye penetrant testing is simple to do and
is a good way to detect surface-breaking cracks in nonferrous metals. It's
suitable for automatic testing, but with the same limitations that apply to
automatic defect recognition in magnetic particle inspection.

Disadvantages. Dye penetrant testing is restricted to surface-breaking defects

only. It is less sensitive than some other methods and uses a considerable
amount of consumables.

Ultrasonic Flaw Detection

This technique detects internal and surface — particularly distant-
surface — defects in sound-conducting materials. A short pulse of ultrasound is
generated by means of an electric charge applied to a piezoelectric crystal,
which vibrates for a very short period at a frequency related to the thickness of
the crystal. This pulse takes a finite time to travel through the material to the
interface and to be reflected back to the probe. Probing all faces of a test piece
reveals the 3-D defect, measures its depth, and determines its size.
Tools. Modern ultrasonic flaw detectors are fully solid-state, can be battery-
powered, and generally are built to withstand work site conditions. The process
can be automated and now is used in many foundries.
Advantages. Ultrasonic flaw detection can be used to test thickness and length
up to 30 feet. This type of testing can determine defect position, size, and type.
It's a portable type of testing that offers extreme sensitivity when required and
can be fully automated. Access to only one side is necessary for testing, and no
consumables are used.
Disadvantages. No permanent record is available unless one of the more
sophisticated test results and data collection systems is used. The operator can
decide whether or not the test piece is defective while the test is in progress.
Test indications require interpretation, except for digital wall thickness gauges.
A considerable degree of skill is necessary to get the most information from the
test. Finally, very thin sections can be difficult to test with this method.
Eddy Current Testing
The eddy current technique can detect surface or subsurface flaws
and measure conductivity and coating thickness. This testing is sensitive to a
test piece's material conductivity, permeability, and dimensions. For surface
testing for cracks in single or complex-shaped components, coils with a single
ferrite-cored winding normally are used. The probe is placed on the component
and “balanced” by use of the electronic unit controls. As the probe is scanned
across the surface of the component, cracks are detected.
Tools. Most eddy current electronics have a phase display that allows the
operator to identify defect conditions. Some units can inspect a product
simultaneously at two or more different test frequencies. These units allow
specific, unwanted effects to be electronically canceled to give improved defect
detection. Most automated systems are for components with simple geometries.
Advantages. Suitable for automation, eddy current testing can determine a
range of conditions of conducting material — defects, composition, hardness,
conductivity, and permeability, for example — in a variety of engineering
metals. Information can be provided in simple terms, often go or no-go. Phase
display electronic units can be used to obtain greater product information.
Compact, portable testing units are available, and this type of testing doesn't
require consumables, except for probes, which sometimes can be repaired.
This technique is flexible because of the many probes and test frequencies that
can be used for different applications.
Disadvantages. Many parameters can affect the eddy current responses. This
means that the signal from a desired material characteristic (for example, a
crack) may be masked by an unwanted parameter, such as hardness change.
Careful probe and electronics selection is necessary in some applications. Also,
tests generally are restricted to surface-breaking conditions and slightly
subsurface flaws.

THEORY AND CAPABILTIES

We investigate here the resolution for two popular NDT methods: The seismic
(acoustic) based methods like impact echo (IE) and the electromagnatic-based
methods like radar. Typically seismic methods are used to investigate cracks,
voids, and structure integrity. Specifically, the impact echo is more inclined to
provide info on structure integrity and condition as well as map some of the
larger voids in a concrete structure. The Radar method is used to verify and
map the locations of the reinforcements and possibly map voids or honeycomb.

The seismic (Acoustic) approach

The seismic (acoustic) method is based on the measurement of the vibration
response of a medium to an excited impact or vibration source. The seismic
wave propagation is governed by the wave equation with the appropriate
boundary conditions. The application of boundary conditions depends on the
location of the boundary with respect to the location and frequency content of
the source. Though most solids posse’s elastic properties of wave propagation,
the elastic behavior is usually approximated by the simpler acoustic one in the
analysis stage. The acoustic wave equation provides all the kinematic and
dynamic accuracy needed to map the seismic wave propagation in most media.

One NDT method that relies on measuring vibrations is the Impact Echo (IE)
method. The applications of the IE technique include: determining both the
thickness and flaws in plate-like structure members, such as slabs, walls;
detecting flaws in beams, columns and hollow cylindrical structural members;
assessing the quality of bond in overlays; and detecting void in post tension
tendon duct etc. One of its main advantages is that it can detect flaw locations
as well as the flaw depth. The popularity of this technique has been augmented
by well published comprehensive research done by the developers of this
technique (i.e. Asano et. al., 2003).

Acoustic methods provide one of the best penetration capabilities out there. The
lower frequencies, necessary for the better penetration, along with the slower
wave speed, provide the reasonably short wavelengths necessary to resolve
small anomalies. The speed of acoustic waves (used in the Impact echo) is far
slower than electro magnetic waves (used in the radar). Despite that we have
higher frequencies in the radar, because of the slow velocity of IE, the resultant
resolution is reasonably high in the IE

Nondestructive testing method categories

Basic Categories Objectives

Mechanical and color, cracks, dimensions, film thickness,

optical gaging, reflectivity, strain distribution and
magnitude, surface finish, surface flaws,
 through-cracks
Penetrating radiation cracks, density and chemistry variations,
elemental distribution, foreign objects,
inclusions, microporosity, misalignment,
missing parts, segregation, service
degradation, shrinkage, thickness, voids
Electromagnetic and alloy content, anisotropy, cavities, cold work,
electronic local strain, hardness, composition,
contamination, corrosion, cracks, crack depth,
crystal structure, electrical and thermal
conductivities, flakes, heat treatment, hot tears,
inclusions, ion concentrations, laps, lattice
strain, layer thickness, moisture content,
polarization, seams, segregation, shrinkage,
state of cure, tensile strength, thickness,
disbonds
Sonic and ultrasonic crack initiation and propagation, cracks, voids,
damping factor, degree of cure, degree of
impregnation, degree of sintering,
delaminations, density, dimensions, elastic
moduli, grain size, inclusions, mechanical
degradation, misalignment, porosity, radiation
degradation, structure of composites, surface
stress, tensile, shear and compressive
strength, disbonds, wear

Signature analysis
Electromagnetic potential, strength, field distribution and
field pattern

Acoustic noise, vibration characteristics, frequency

signature amplitude, harmonic spectrum and/or
analysis, sonic and/or ultrasonic emissions
Radioactive distribution and diffusion of isotopes and
signature tracers