NEUR30060

Sensory Neuroscience
Dr John O’Connor
The Eye Practical

Tony Corcoran

08444463

Introduction:

The ability for the eye to focus light on the fovea is primarily dependent on the cornea and the
lens. Both of these structures focus the light via refraction, the bending of light as it passes
between media of differing density. The majority (around 70%) of refraction occurs at the
air/cornea boundary, and the angle of this refraction is not adjustable. The aqueous humor/lens
boundary is responsible for the remaining refraction in the eye. Refraction at this boundary is
adjustable, due to the presence of the ciliary muscles which can alter the shape of the lens.
Since the distance between the retina and the cornea is fixed, the presence of ciliary muscles to
alter lens shape is vital for the successful focusing of an image.

Normally, the lens is flattened by the tension of elastic fibres which suspend it in the eye. This
allows distant objects to be focused on the retina. Contraction of the ciliary muscles relieves this
tension, so the lens can adopt a more rounded shape with a reduced focal length. This allows
near objects to focus on the retina. This ability of the eye to adjust its focal length is called
accommodation.

Assuming a fixed image length of 0.017m, the focal length of the lens can be calculated for
objects at various distances by the formula u-1 + v-1 = f-1. The refractive power of the lens is the
defined as the reciprocal of the distance in metres between the eye and an object and is
measured in diopters. For example, an eye with a refractive power of 10 diopters can bend light
sufficiently to focus on an object 10cm away. In normal vision, the refractive power declines
from around 14 diopters at age ten, to around 1-2 diopters at age 40. In presbyopia, the
refractive power diminishes to zero diopters, rendering un-aided near focus impossible.

Myopia, commonly called short sightedness, is caused by an image which is formed in front of
the retina. This can be due to an elongation of the eye, or an increased refractive power of the
lens. While near vision remains unaffected, far objects will appear blurred as the image does not
focus on the retina. Hyperopia, or far sightedness, is cause by the formation of images behind
the retina. In the case the eye has become shorter. Interestingly newborn infants have the ability
to correct myopia or hyperopia, by altering the length of the eye to obtain an appropriate focal
length. This phenomenon is called emmetropisation, and demonstrates that eye growth is
dependent on environmental factors.
Corrective lenses can be worn in order to correct the focal length and form an appropriate
image on the lens. For a person suffering from myopia, a negative focus is needed. In
hyperopia, a positive focus is needed.

Distortion of the cornea gives rise to a visual condition called astigmatism. Non-uniform
curvature of the cornea results in a blurred plane, either vertically or horizontally, as different
levels of accommodation are needed to bring each into focus. Astigmatism which is present at
an early age results in exposure to an environment in which images in one plane are focused
sharply, but images 90 degrees to this plane are out of focus. Astigmatism can be induced in a
normal eye by looking througha lens with a cylindrical curvature. This lens can then be rotated
to obtain various astigmatic planes.

Results + Discussion:

Part A – Lens, Accomodation, Refraction and the Pupil

Exercise 1: Astigmatic Chart

All of the lines appeared equally black, so astigmatism is not present in my eye.
Astigmatism was induced by placing a cylindrical lens in front of the eye and looking at the
chart. The 1 o’clock - 7 o’clock line became most prominent, indicating that the axis of induced
astigmatism ran from 4 o’clock to 10 o’clock. As the lens was rotated, the axis of the induced
astigmatism shifted correspondingly.

Exercise 2: ACCOMMODATION IN THE HUMAN EYE

a. Change of refraction

Typical accommodation Near point

Age (yr) (D) (m)
8 14 0.07143
45 4 0.25
60 1 1

Use the small Jaegers text type (numbers 1 & 2) provided to work out

The near point ("straining the eye") = 10cm

The power of your lens at this focus = 10 diopters
What is the power of your lens when fully relaxed (use the largest Jaegers text type) = 0
diopters
The amplitude of accommodation = 10 diopters - 0 diopters = 10 diopters

The table below shows the expected values for power of accommodation at various ages. We
can clearly see that people at the upper end of the chart are approaching presbyopia.
The power of accommodation observed in my eye agrees with the table, meaning that the loss
of power of accommodation in my eye is due to ageing.

b. Change in Depth of Focus

The change in depth of focus with distance of the object is clearly apparent when tested on the
eye.
Near object: Hold a pencil at different distances from a page of print. Focus on the pencil,
closing the eye. How far can you raise it above the print before the print becomes appreciably
blurred?
Distant object: Close one eye. Look out of a window across the room (distance say 30 ft) at
buildings beyond (distance perhaps 300 ft). Note that both appear clearly focussed whichever is
fixed on with the eye.
Explain?

Exercise 3:

From the lens equation calculate the position of the following image produced by a
convex lens. Draw a ray diagram and state whether the images are real or virtual, and
also if they are upright or inverted.
u=6cm, f=4cm.

1/u + 1/v = 1/f

1/6 + 1/v = ¼
1/v = 6/24 – 4/24
1/v = 1/12
V = 12

The image produced is real and inverted. Using principles associated with congruent triangles, it
is possible to calculate the image size on the retina. a/sina = b/sinb

Exercise 4
Calculate the position of the images formed by the following concave lenses (be careful with the
sign of the focal length in the lens formula!).
For an object with u=12 cm if the focal length is -4 cm
1/u + 1/v = 1/f
1/12 + 1/v = -1/4
1/v = ¼ - 1/12
1/v = -4/12
V = -3
U = 12cm v = -3cm f = -4cm

The image is virtual and erect

Exercise 5

A card is supplied with two dots approximately 10cm apart. Closing the left and
staring at the left dot, the card is moved inward until the image of the right dot
disappears. The card is brought closer to the eye until the right dot reappears.

Right dot disappeared at 40cm

Right dot reappeared at 29cm

Exercise 6

Exercise 6: THE IRIS

1. Pupillometry

a) The shape of each pupil is a uniform circle (no change in diameter).

The right pupil has a diameter of 4mm, and the left 4mm.

b) The Cogan’s pupilometer which was used had measurements which increased in 1mm
increments. At 4mm, the holes were slightly separated while at 3mm, there was slight
overlap between the two circles of light. We deduced that the true measure was
approximately 3.5mm. This gives us a more accurate measure of pupil diameter. The
disks of light do not remain stationary during measurement, suggesting that the pupil is
 constantly monitoring and adjusting its level of constriction in order to allow the
appropriate amount of light into the eye

2. Pupillary Reflexes

a) The reaction to light: The right eye was covered, and the left closed for a minute. When
the right eye was uncovered, a rapid constriction was observed. Constriction in the left
eye was also noted. The eyes were allowed to rest before a torch was shone in the left
eye. Both pupils contracted in response to the torch. The contralateral constriction arises
due to reciprocal connections of Edinger-Westphal nuclei in the midbrain. Neurons
carrying the strong light stimulus project to the pretectum of the midbrain, bypassing the
lateral geniculate nucleus of the thalamus. At the pretectum Edinger-Westphal nuclei
trigger pupil contstriction, and this information is carried by the occulomotor nerve. A
diagram is shown below:

Image obtained from http://thalamus.wustl.edu/course/cenvis.html

Reciprocal connection of the Edinger-Westphal nuclei is shown in blue. The stimulus is

equally distributed to the E-W nuclei on both sides, thus equal constriction of the pupils is
observed.

b) The accommodation reflex was tested by switching suddenly from far to near vision.
When focus is suddenly switched from a far object to a near object, there is a
momentary blurring of the near retinal image. This triggers accommodation by
contraction of the ciliary muscles, leading to greater refraction. A corresponding
constriction in the pupil was seen, and the eyes were seen to converge in orderto
accurately focus the light on the fovea.
.
c) The cilio-spinal reflex was triggered by pinching the nape of the neck. The pupils were
seen to constrict. This test is an important step in assessment of head trauma.
THE EYE PART B
Exercise 7: Visual fields (perimetry)

I measured the boundaries of the visual field of my lab partner on a perimetry chart. The
extremes of visual perception at various angles are marked in red on the charts below.
This is the right eye.

We can see that vision on the left side of the right eye is restricted due to the presence of
the nose. Correspondingly, vision on the right side of the right eye is abundant. The
visual field of my lab partner, Anna, differs slightly from the printed standard. Anna has
increased upper visual perception and greater perception at the lower left of her right
eye. I would attribute this to differences in the shapes of their skulls – Anna having a
flatter nose and a lesser degree of supra-orbital ridge protrusion.
 This is the left eye.

We can see that vision on the right side of the left eye is restricted due to the presence of
the nose. Correspondingly, vision on the left side of the left eye is abundant. Relative to
the right eye and the standard, the left visual field is greatly reduced.

Exercise 8
A man of 1.8 m height stands 10 m from your cornea-lens system. What height is his image on
your retina?

If AB, object; ab, image; n, nodal point; F, principal focus (anterior) ; P, Principal Plane (1.5 mm
behind anterior surface of cornea) and FP and bn = 17 mm.

as AB/ab = Bn/bn

Therefore Retinal image ab = AB x bn/Bn

= Object size (mm) x 17/(Distance of object)

= 1800 x 17 /(10000)mm = 3.06mm

Exercise 9
A man of 2 m height stands 1 m from you. What height is his image on your retina? Is this
correct? Why?

2000 x 17/1000 = 34mm

This cannot be correct as the retain is too small to capture an image of 34mm. The man is
standing so close that his full height cannot be seen while the eye remains fixed in position. I
must move my eye within its socket in order to see the whole man, or move backwards until the
image size reduces to a value which my retina can detect without eye movement.

BLIND SPOT
EXERCISE 10: Calculation of optic disc diameter using blind spot

A card with 2 dots exactly 10cm apart is held in front of the eyes, with the left eye closed. The
person focuses on the left dot, and the card is moved towards the face from a distance. At some
point, the right dot disappears. As the card further approached the eye, the right dot will
reappear.

The dot disappeared at 40cm from the eye. This represents the lateral boundary of the blind
spot.
The dot reappeared at 29cm from the eye. This represents the medial boundary of the blind
spot.

The disappearing of the second dot is due to the dot falling on the blind spot, or optic disk. This
is the point where the axons of ganglion cells of the retina leave the eye. There is a deficit of
photoreceptors in this area as the axon must physically pass through the retina. As there are no
photoreceptors, there is no capacity to detect an image which falls in this region. As the card
approaches the eye, the image of the dot moves out of the blind spot until it once again hits
photoreceptors and can be detected.
*NOTE – What is shown in red as the retina should be labelled photoreceptors.

Left - Image of right dot falling on retina. As the card is moved closer, the image approaches the
lateral boundary of the blind spot

Right - The image of the right dot falls inside the lateral boundary of the blind spot. The right dot
cannot be seen
*NOTE – What is shown in red as the retina should be labelled photoreceptors.

Left – as the card approaches, the image travels across the blind spot towards the medial
boundary of the blind spot. The right dot still cannot be seen.
Right – the image is once again formed on the retina and the right dot can be seen.

Assuming the retina is 17mm from the nodal point (ie. A1C = 17mm), we can calculate;

a) the distance from the fovea and the optic disk

b) the diameter of the optic disk
 AC/AB = A1C/A1B1
1 1
400/100 = 17/ A B

So A1B1 = 4.25mm.
a) The distance between the fovea and the lateral boundary of the optic disk is 4.25mm
 AC/AB = A1C/A1B1
1 1
290/100 = 17/ A B
290(A1B1) = 1700
A1B1 = 1700/290

So A1B1 = 5.86mm.

The distance between the fovea and the medial boundary of the optic disk is 5.86mm. The
diameter of the optic disk is equal to the distance from the fovea to the medial boundary minus
the distance from the fovea to the lateral boundary. 5.86mm - 4.25mm = 1.61mm

b) The diameter of the optic disk is 1.61mm.

Exercise 11: VISUAL ACUITY

At 6 metres, I could read the line marked 6 metres. The smallest interval that I could resolve at
6m was 6mm. This is equivalent to 6/4.5 vision.

6000/6 = 17/ A1B1

6000(A1B1) = 17 x 6
A1B1 = 102/6000 = 0.017mm
Thus, the resolving power of my retina is 0.017mm.

References:

http://www.neuro.uu.se/fysiologi/gu/nbb/lectures/Resting.html

http://thalamus.wustl.edu/course/cenvis.html

http://drbein.net/PDFs/Reflex%20Arc%20Lab.pdf

http://webphysics.davidson.edu/physlet_resources/dav_optics/examples/eye_demo.html

Schaeffel, F., Glasser, A. & Howland, H.C. (1989). Accomodation, refractive error and eye
growth in chicken. Vision research, 28.

Longstaff, A. Neuroscience 2nd Ed. (2005)

Kandel, E.R., Schwartz, J.H., Jessell, T.M. Principles of Neural science 4th Ed. (2000)

Images self produced unless stated otherwise.