ASSIGNMENT 1

Child Abuse
By

Dr. Celeste Fabrie

An outline of the possible individual predisposing

factors relevant to child abuse, and an explanation
of these factors according to different theoretical perspectives
 2.

CONTENTS

1 Introduction
 3.

1. Introduction

The aim of this essay is to outline specific individual predisposing

factors which contribute to child abuse. These components will be
described under the following perspectives; sociocultural perspective
the psychodynamic view, social learning, cognitive, humanistic and
the systemic approach. Social support systems will also be discussed.

2. A definition of family violence and child abuse

Family or domestic violence does not exist in a vacuum. It all begins

with specific stressors in a family environment, which if unattended will
in most cases develop into a cycle of violence. Family violence covers a broad
spectrum of categories, mainly wife battering, incest, murder,
emotional and physical torture, and child abuse. These “hidden crimes” often
occur in the privacy of the home, and can go on for many years without even
the neighbours suspecting anything out of the ordinary (Brown et al, 1998).

Child abuse does not necessarily have to occur in the family surroundings.
Often child abuse occurs outside the home by complete strangers or
under institutional circumstances. In other words, child abuse has many
“faces” and can fall under the following areas (study guide KRM309-M):

- emotional and physical neglect (e.g. starvation of the child)

- sexual abuse (incest or sex trafficking)
- drug trafficking
- illegal employment
- street children / runaways (homelessness)
- denial of education
- unnecessary punishments (harsh beatings)
3. Risk factors of abuse

A child is at risk when parents or caretakers do not fulfil their duties

towards the upbringing of children, such as adequate care, love and
guidance. Risk factors of abuse are:

- serious personality problems

- patriarchal family systems
- gender indoctrination (stereotypes)
- economic dependency of the wife
- political climate (child soldiers)
- parent-child interactions
- child’s characteristics (physical handicaps)
- low parental intelligence
- predisposition to child abuse (diathesis stress model)
- uncontrolled aggressive impulses
- lack of knowledge about children’s natural development processes
- inadequate child-training techniques
- abusive parents who were also abused as children
- social incompetence
- passivity of the wife
- no social support systems (social isolation)
- dysfunctional family network communication patterns.
- criminal parents
- drug and alcohol influences
- media influences
- unemployment
- single mothers
- step parents

Often violence is a replacement for a failing social and economic situation.

We will now explain most of the above characteristics under the different
theoretical perspectives.
4. Sociocultural perspective

This approach looks beyond the individual, focusing mainly on the

following stress factors from a social/cultural point of departure:
- unemployment
- family size/crowding/lack of private space
- unwanted pregnancies
- child-spacing
- social isolation
- lower social strata status (Doerner & Lab, 1995. p. 149)

Cultural factors contribute to the norms and values of society.

Subcultures on the other hand are ruled by certain attitudes towards
child upbringing and antisocial behaviour. Social and physical features
of settings can affect social relationships. Disadvantaged groups carry
their own norms and values which highlight or encourage certain behaviour
characteristics. Blackburn (1994 p. 231), states that high temperatures,
pollution, noise levels, overcrowding, territorial invasion, personal space
violation, high population densities can all act as stressors or predispose
an individual towards child abuse. Impaired information processing or
perceived loss of control usually precedes acts of violence. Even distorted
patterns of child rearing from one generation to the next can contribute
to child abuse.

South Africa for example is a land with a multi-racial tradition. Unfortunately,

In many black communities the men are indoctrinated to treat women and
children as subordinates. Abuse, rape and violence is not considered a crime.
For instance, the lobola (dowry) marriage system gives the man the right to
own both woman/en and children. Only men are the ones to mete out discipline
on his family. The tribe actually condone violence (van der Hoven, 2001. pp. 16-21).
5. Psychodynamic view

This approach views child abuse as some internal psychopathy within

the individual that possibly goes back to unresolved childhood conflicts.
For example, role reversal can take place when the adult tries to switch
roles with the child hoping to receive love and care in return. When the child
does not illicit the expected responses, the parent feels frustrated, rejected
and not loved by the child. These negative emotions then trigger an aggressive
cue on part of the parent towards the child (Doerner et al, 1995. p. 148)
In fact, intrapsychic conflicts normally arise due to certain maladaptive
traits, such as (Bergh, 1997. p. 23):
- low self-esteem and poor self-image
- strong feelings of inadequacy and helplessness
- depression
- displacement of aggression on child/wife (defense mechanism)
- denial of any feelings of aggression
- distortion of reality (misinterpretation of the facts)
- the need for control and power over weaker persons
- tension and anxiety in female company
- superficial and impersonal family relationships.

6. Social learning perspective

This theory focuses on experiences and reinforcements such as rewarding

a child for good behaviour or in some case praising the child when he or she
does something malicious against another human being. A child can also grow
up with a distorted social pattern if the parent is too lenient about disciplining
the child about acceptable and unacceptable social behaviour.

Children who observe violence in the family will think that such behaviour is
a norm and will in turn behave in a similar fashion. This repeated cycle of
violence will follow the child into adulthood with negative consequences.
Exposure to brutalisation can actually harm the social, physical, spiritual
and mental development of many children for the rest of their lives.
 Vesterdal (1985, p. 53) mentions that courts who place children under
the care of grandparents might be making a fatal mistake, as these same
grandparents could be the sole perpetrators of the original violence and
abuse with the parents of the child or children.

Learned helplessness is the habitualised acceptance of abuse over

several years. Children who grow up to accept their fates, knowing no
other way out, learn to cope with their trauma by responding passively
to each abusive situation. This acquiescent behaviour can result in eventual
suicide of the child or murder (van der Hoven,1992. p.248).

Bandura (Sue et al, 1997) stressed that maladaptive social learning

patterns are formed by the reinforcement of certain negative behaviours
such as repetition of behaviours, followed by a conditioned response
to a stimulus (such as the child not performing as told).

Classical conditioning also involves a type of social learning whereby,

the child acts as a catalyst or stimulus which is the conditioned response
for the parental abuse. In other words, the parent learns through association
with the stimulus when to strike out at the child.

7. Cognitive aspect

Another way to view abuse is through the cognitive perspective. In many

instances, the offending parent interprets events through distorted thought
processes. Child abuse, often takes place under irrational thinking and false
belief systems. The parent may wrongly assume that the child deserves a
hard beating for breaking a glass but does not realise that toddler of 15
months is still too young to hold a glass steady in the hand. Maladaptive
thoughts are normally “about” the event and not from the actual event itself.
The abused child in turn will develop a negative self-image about itself, thinking
that he or she is worthless, clumsy and a failure. This cognitive cycle is
 reinforced by the parents abusive actions each time the child supposedly does
something wrong.

8. Humanistic perspective

This theory focuses on interpersonal relationships, namely on positive

human qualities, potential and abilities. Abnormal behaviour is described
as the result of “blockages” in these potentials. Carl Rogers (Sue et al, 1997.
pp. 46-47) refers to humanity as normally “good”. However, abnormal
behaviour can result from societies “conditions of worth” on its members.
A distorted self-concept or “incongruent” personality can be attributed by
the child abuser. The child’s true potential is often never reached due to
the distorted self-concept which is influenced by significant others. Roger’s
furthermore, believed that “unconditional positive regard” is essential for
a child’s positive development. This means, supplying the child with love,
acceptance and an open family system for positive growth.

9. Systems perspective

The systemic view or family perspective concentrates on the relationships and

interactions between different family members. In other words, the cause of
child abuse in the family is attributed to faulty, maladaptive communication
and behaviour patterns which are reciprocal in nature (Moore, 1997, p. 561).
Any major changes in one part of the system will also lead to change in other
parts of the family network. In other words, an abusive family environment
is supported by a homeostatic cycle, which means than the abuser will only
shift the abuse around, perhaps from child to child, or from child to mother.

On the other hand, the ecosystemic view will go beyond the individual’s
Immediate family surroundings, focusing instead on the ecological causes
of abuse, such as the family and socio-cultural factors. This model focuses
on the meanings a person attaches to an experience, which is determined by
the person and not by the experience (Dell, 1985). In other words, a person’s
potential can only be realized through the interaction of these systems, such as
 family, communities and society.

Child abuse is often seen as a breakdown in relationships within the family

system, or the person’s surroundings such as the school, community
or cycle of friends. In fact, the main emphasis is on the co-creation of meanings
and the systems autonomy to regulate itself. This view tries to conceptualise how
the abuse is affecting the lives of family members by looking beyond the individual
to the broader context.

10. Social support systems

Social support systems are a natural way of live. They form a strong bonding
Between families and communities. Without a social network, the family becomes
isolated from the rest of the world. Children from closed-family systems do not
know how to socialise with their peers, or develop healthy relationships with
people outside their four walls. An abused child grows up with fear and lack of
confidence, or may develop a violent and aggressive character towards all people.
Child abuse can be prevented at its roots if the following support systems are
encouraged and followed through by government and communities
(study guide KRM309-M):

a) public education (portraying women in a positive way)

b) educational programmes – attitude change in the schools/higher education
c) training of personnel: health and counselling services, communities, schools
d) toll-free lines for crises calls
e) free medical and legal services (for abused persons without financial support)
f) accommodation shelters

11. Summary

This essay has discussed child abuse from different perspectives, namely;
the socio-cultural, psychodynamic, social learning, cognitive, humanistic and
systems view. A brief outline of a social support systems programme was also
 mentioned as a possible means of prevention against child abuse and family violence.

12. Conclusion

This essay has outlined the many precipitating factors and stressors which
predispose an adult to abuse a child or other family member. Unfortunately,
child abuse, whether physical or emotional often leaves the victim with
psychological scarring for the rest of his or her life. This exposure to chronic,
repeated trauma in the home or institution can be prevented through a strong
social support system. As with most social programmes, the available funds
are never enough to cover the long-term benefits of reaching out to an abused
child and its abuser. Often it is too late for the victim.