Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of JSTOR's Terms and Conditions of Use, available at
http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp. JSTOR's Terms and Conditions of Use provides, in part, that unless
you have obtained prior permission, you may not download an entire issue of a journal or multiple copies of articles, and you
may use content in the JSTOR archive only for your personal, non-commercial use.
Please contact the publisher regarding any further use of this work. Publisher contact information may be obtained at
http://www.jstor.org/action/showPublisher?publisherCode=utp.
Each copy of any part of a JSTOR transmission must contain the same copyright notice that appears on the screen or printed
page of such transmission.
JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of
content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms
of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org.
Canadian Public Policy and University of Toronto Press are collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve
and extend access to Canadian Public Policy / Analyse de Politiques.
http://www.jstor.org
The Economics of Public-Private
Partnerships
ANDTHOMASW.
DE BETTIGNIES
JEAN-ETIENNE Ross
SauderSchoolof Business
Universityof BritishColumbia
Vancouver,BritishColumbia
Ourgoal in this paperis to worktowardan under- Bridge connecting New Brunswick and Prince
standingof the underlyingeconomicsof P3s such EdwardIsland, completedin 1999; the 407 ETR
thatwe mightbe betterable to advisegovernments highwayin SouthernOntario(firststagecompleted
withrespectto whereandhow theymightrepresent in 1998);andthe CharleswoodBridgein Winnipeg,
betterways to deliverpublicservices. completedin 1995.It is clear,however,thateven in
CanadaP3s havegone beyondroadsandbridgesto
The term public-privatepartnershipis used in include,forexample,airports,schools,incineration
slightlydifferentways with the resultthata precise facilities, waterandwastewatertreatment,medical
definitionto whichall will agreeis elusive.TheBC facilities, recreationfacilities, propertymanage-
Ministryof Financeoffereda straightforward defi- ment, and utilities.4 In a numberof countriesand
nition that focused on the use of P3s to replace even someCanadianprovinces,specialoffices have
traditionalpublicprovision:"Public-private partner- been createdwithinthe governmentsto collect P3
ships (P3s) are contractualarrangements between expertise and promote the use of P3s in certain
governmentanda privatepartyfor the provisionof classes of projects.5
assets and the deliveryof services that have been
traditionallyprovidedby the publicsector"(2002). While holding out the promiseof a more effi-
Allan (1999) reportsseven definitionshe has un- cient allocationof society's resourcesand a better
covered.' The central element reflected in these "valuefor money"for taxpayers,P3s arenot with-
definitionsand others is the sharingof decision- outtheircritics.Publicsectorunionsareparticularly
making authority, which contrasts with the opposed to what they see as attemptsby govern-
"supplier" relationshipin whichgovernmentdecides ments to shift their work to private sector firms
exactly what it wants and buys it and the "public payinglowerwages andofferingan inferiorquality
enterprise" modelin whichthegovernment produces of service (see, e.g., CUPE2002). And thereis no
the services with no private sector involvement. disputingthe fact that some P3s have not worked
Many definitionsalso mentionthe sharingof re- out as well as projectedby the partners.In theirex-
wardsandof risk.The sharingof rewardsis clearly amination of P3s, which included reviews of a
necessaryif the privatesectoris to be involvedvol- number of specific projects, Boase (2000) and
untarily,2and the idea thatP3s permitthe optimal Daniels and Trebilcock(1996) recognizeboth the
allocationof risk is pervasivein the P3 industry's potentialbenefitsand costs of P3s. The costs they
literatureandwill be addressedin detailbelow. cite includelack of transparencyand accountabil-
ity, and the potentiallyserious problemsthat can
Whilesome examplesof P3s go backdecadesor arisewhencontractsarenot well-designed.
more, there can be little doubt that interestgrew
rapidlyin the 1990s.3TheUnitedKingdomparticu- This paperis at once an introductionto an im-
larly embracedwhat were called "privatefinance portant,and increasinglyso, area of government-
initiatives"(PFIs)to get privateparticipationin the businessrelationsanda call for research.We argue
provisionof publicservicesbeginningabout1992. thatbasic economictheoryis extremelyhelpfulin
InitialBritishPFIs were concentratedin the trans- understandingthe potentialfor costs and benefits
portationsector,but morerecentlythey have been from these new arrangements. While even a short
used in a varietyof areas,includingroads,hospi- library or Web searchwill uncoverliterallythou-
tals, andschools. sandsof pages writtenon P3s, thereis a surprising
shortageof what we might call objectiveresearch
Recent high-profileexamplesof public-private on the topic,or independentevaluationsof the suc-
partnershipsin Canadainclude the Confederation cesses andfailures.Mostof whatis availablecomes
contingency,andsecond,even if everycontingency
couldbe predicted,it wouldprobablybe difficultto Complex or
Uncertain
Exchange
write down these plans in a contractbetween the Environment?
customerandtheproviderthatis enforceableby law.
No Yes
In that case, long-termcontractssuch as the ones
just describedare less helpfulbecausethey cannot
be madeto bindin somecircumstances: we say that SpotMarkets Contracts Vertical
Long-term Integration
the contractsareincomplete.Coase(1937) was the [P3] [Public
Provision]
first to recognize the economic consequencesof
The challenge,when the privatesectoris to use contractswith the builderto both constructandop-
the facility to provide the service, is in carefully erate the prison.34The builderanticipateshe will
specifyingthe characteristicsof the servicethatthe be able to reapsome benefitsfrominvesting- in
governmentcares aboutso that thereis no misun- termsof lower operatingcosts - and thus makes
derstanding(ordeliberateexploitationof incomplete positive investmentsin both building quality and
contracts)betweentheparties.As withmanyaspects corner-cutting.Therefore,relativeto P3s, conven-
of P3s, the contractingchallengeshere are signifi- tional provisionleads to more underinvestment in
cant - importantcharacteristicsof servicequality productive effortbuildingquality,while P3s lead to
must be measuredand verifiablestandardsof ac- overinvestmentsin corner-cutting.Hartconcludes
ceptableperformanceestablished.32Forthisreason that P3s may be optimal when building quality
it is notsurprisingto see thatmanyjurisdictionshave cannotbe well specifiedandcorner-cuttinginvest-
createdspecializedagenciesto reviewproposalsand mentsarerelativelyeasy to monitor,becausein that
lay out contracttermsfor P3s. These groupsoften case both overinvestmentsin corner-cuttingand
functionas within-government consultantson P3s, underinvestment in building quality are relatively
andas repositoriesof knowledgeandexperiencethat low.
provide governmentswith the skills they need to
structureP3s to theirmaximumbenefit. Bundlingand AsymmetricInformation
In contrastwith the previousmodels,which started
TheoreticalLiteratureon P3s as the froman incompletecontractsframework,the most
Privatizationof Both Constructionand recentpaperon P3s takes a completecontracting
Operation approachwhereagencyproblemsbetweenthe cus-
TherecentresearchdealingspecificallywithP3shas tomer(government)andthe provider(the agent,the
definedthem,really,as thedelegationof twoormore privatesector) stem from asymmetricinformation
to the privatesector.Herewe re-
tasks, "bundling," and non-observabilityof effort. Bentz, Groutand
view the mainarticlesandpresenttheirkey results. Halonen(2002) considerthe constructionandserv-
ice provisionrelatedto a productsuch as a school.
Bundlingand IncompleteContracting They analyzewhethera governmentshouldopt for
In a recent article, Hart (2003) adaptedthe Hart, "conventional delivery"- in whichcase it contracts
SchleiferandVishny(1997) model to analyzeP3s with a builder,takes possessionof the school, and
specifically.The governmentis concernedwith the then writes a separatecontractwith a service pro-
buildingandthe operationof an asset, say a hospi- vider- or for a P3, in whichcase thereis a unique
tal or a prison.The buildercan maketwo types of contractbetween the governmentand a "consor-
investmentsat the time of constructionwhich af- tium"thatbuildsandmanagesthe school.
fect the operation of the asset. The productive
investmentincreasesthebenefitandreducesthecost Bentz,GroutandHalonenassumethatthebuilder
of operation(e.g., investmentin buildingquality), canexerteffortto improveefficiencyof servicepro-
while the unproductiveinvestmentreducesoperat- vision, andthatthis efficiencyis observableonly to
ing cost but also its benefit (e.g., investmentin the serviceproviderbutnot to the government.With
"corner-cutting,"similar to Hart, Schleifer and P3s, thereis a uniquecontractand the model sim-
Vishny).33With "conventionalprovision,"the gov- plifies to a standardadverse selection set-up in
ernmentcontractsseparatelythe buildingand then which the builder/serviceprovideris induced to
the operationof the prison.Thebuilderis thuspaid truthfullyreveal whether service provision effi-
beforethe fruitof his two investmentsarerealized. ciencyis high or low. The informationrentgiven to
Anticipatingthis, the builderinvestsnothingin the the agentto inducetruth-tellingalso generatesin-
first place. In contrast,with a P3, the government centivesto exerteffortat thebuildingstage,andthus
be able to borrowat 5 percent,but in fact over the will often not be able to borrowat the risk-free
chance
courseof 20 yearsthereis a not-insignificant rate.38 Importantly,they may face an upward-
it will be unableto meet its debtobligations.Thus, sloping supplyof capitalcurvesuch thatthe more
a loan contractwith this privateborrower,say at 7 they borrowthe higherthe interestrate they must
percent,is actuallya combinationof a loan plus an pay. For example,as a provincialgovernmentin-
option to "put"the remainingportionof the debt creases borrowingit runs the risk of having its
backto the originallender. debt-ratingdowngradedand having to pay higher
rates on all of its borrowing.The implicationis a
The importantobservationhere is thatthe gov- familiarone frommonopsonytheory- the cost of
ernmentdoes not get this putoptionwhenit pays 5 borrowingfor the next projectis higherthanjust
percent,it must repay the loan in full, no matter the interestrate you pay for that projectif it also
what.This is not to say thatthe cost of borrowing increasesthe rate you pay for all your otherbor-
has to be identicalwhenwe takethe putoptioninto rowing.For a governmentborrowingconsiderable
account,it is just to point out that the listed rate sumsof moneyregularly,thechanceof a downgrade
exaggeratesthe difference.37 leadingto theneedto payevena quarterpercentage
point more is a very serious matter.Thus, we can
The secondpointwe wouldmakeaboutthe rates have a situationin which even if the interestrate
at which governmentand privatepartiescan bor- chargedto the governmentborrowingfor the next
row,is thatwith a solid, long-termcontractfroma projectis lowerthanthatwhicha privatesectorpart-
governmentbuyera privateborrowercanmostlikely ner wouldhave to pay, the "full"marginalcost to
securea very good rate fromprivatelenders.Here the governmentcould be muchhigher.
thegovernment's reliabilityas a buyersubstitutesfor
its reliabilityas a borrower,with the resultthatthe We concludefromthis reviewof the issues that
rateat whichtheprivatepartycanborrowis verylow. it is not at all clearthatthe governmentwill be able
to borrowat a lowercost thanthe privatesector.A
Third,the privateborroweris able to deductin- full evaluationof therelativecosts will haveto con-
terestpaymentsandso reduceits tax burden.While sidersuchfactorsas: (i) the credit-worthiness of the
some of this savingmayjust be a transferfromthe private borrower andthe offered
protections in its con-
very governmentwith whichit is partnering,some tractwiththe publicsectorpartner;(ii) the extentto
could be fromotherlevels of government.For ex- whichtaxsavingsmaycomefromotherlevelsof gov-
ample,in Canadathe tax savingscome, in part,at ernment;and(iii) the degreeto whichthe supplyof
the expenseof the federaltreasury,while the public fundsto thepublicsectorborrower is upwardsloping.
sector partnermightbe a provincialor local gov-
ernment.While from the standpointof national BetweenFinancingand
Complementarities
wealththese arenot real savingsin resources,from OtherTasks
the perspectiveof the partners(includingthe pro- Possibly moreimportantthanthe relativecosts of
vincialor local government),someportionsof them publicversusprivatesectorborrowingaretheeffects
are,andtheyfunctionas a formof subsidyfromthe thatbeingthedebtorhason one'sincentivesto high-
other level of governmentavailable only if the level performance.39It is verylikely thattherewill
projectis privatelyfinanced. be importantcomplementaritiesassociated with
combiningthe financingtask with the construction
Fourth,when we recognize that governments, andpossiblyalso theoperation/maintenance task.40
particularlysubnational(e.g., provincial)ones, can
get themselves into serious financial troubleand If a privatepartnerchargedwithconstructingthe
even possibly face bankruptcy,we know thatthey facility mustalso provideits own financing,it will
sufferthe costs of delays. Since, of all the parties, privatepartnerwho not only has the skills, but (be-
the builderhas the greatestcontrolover the time- cause of its "ownership"of the project)also the
to-completion,this provides strongincentivesfor incentiveto performat a high level.44
the builderto finish on time and on budget.While
governmentscan also provokedelays,throughper- Poor labour relations. Wherethe publicsector
mitting(e.g., environmental, zoning,etc.) problems labour-management environmenthas not produced
and design changes, the public sector decision- efficientandflexiblelabour
an appropriately-skilled,
makers are so far removedfrom their principals force,the privatesector(againthroughthe forcesof
(taxpayers)that whetheror not the governmentis competition)mayofferconsiderableadvantages.
providingthefinancingmaynotmatterto them.Add
to thisthefactthatinordinatedelayscreatedby gov- Innovation.Whenthe projectcalls for innova-
ernmentsmightgive the privatepartnerthe rightto tive thinkingandnew approaches,mostwouldturn
recoverdamagesand it would not appearthat any to privateproviders.Of course, it is possible that
strongincentiveloss is felt on the governmentside only somepartsof the project,say the architecture,
by movingfinancingto the privatepartner.41 needbe innovative.In such a case it maybe best to
contractout only thatpart.The extentto whichthe
whole projectshouldbe a P3 will depend,in part,
SUMMARY ANDDISCUSSION:
LESSONS on thecomplementarities betweenthe tasks(see the
LEARNEDTOTHISPOINTANDQUESTIONS
FOR pointson complementarities).
FUTURE
RESEARCH
Risks. Whenmost of the majorrisks are things
Our review of the relevanttheory and experience the privatesectorcan manageas well or betterthan
has suggested a numberof lessons regardingthe the public sector,P3s become moreattractive.For
conditionsunderwhich P3s become a particularly example,construction-delay risk is somethingthat
desirablealternativeto traditionalmethodsfor the the contractorcan managebetter than the public
provisionof public services. To briefly repeatthe partneranda P3 in which the contractor(or a con-
most significanthere:42 sortiumpartner)also becomesthe operatorgives it
the incentiveto minimize such risk. On the other
Ex ante competition. A substantialfractionof hand,"politicalrisk"is bettermanagedby the pub-
thebenefitsfromprivateprovisioncomesfrommar- lic sector.
shalling the pro-efficiencyforces of competition.
Since the ultimateproviderof any serviceswill al- Economies of scale. If the privateprovidercan
most certainly become a monopolist, this take advantageof economiesof scale (andperhaps
competitionwill have to be ex ante - at the bid- scope)fromtheoperationof similarprojectsin other
dingstage.If therearenotenoughcompetentbidders (perhapsnearby)jurisdictions,the P3 option be-
or biddingconsortiato makethe processcompeti- comes more attractive.45
tive, thereis less of a guaranteethattaxpayerswill
get value for money.43 Observabilityand measurabilityof quality.
Muchof the oppositionto privatesectorprovision
Scarce skills. In many cases the privatesector of publicservicesrevolvesaroundconcernsthatthe
will have skills not availablein the publicsector.If qualityof servicewill fall. Inorderto protectagainst
these skills will be requiredthroughoutthe life of such quality erosion, the partnershipagreement
the projectand it is hardto separatethe provision shouldspecify the requiredquality,providefor the
of these skills fromthe operationof the project,the measurementand verificationof quality,and pro-
governmentmay need to allocate these tasks to a vide for enforcementof thecontract'srequirements.
CANADIANPUBLICPOLICY- ANALYSEDEPOLITIQUES,
VOL.XXX,NO. 2 2004
Partnerships 149
TheEconomicsof Public-Private
CANADIAN
PUBLIC - ANALYSE
POLICY DEPOLITIQUES,
VOL.XXX,NO.2 2004
150 Jean-Etiennede Bettigniesand ThomasW Ross
42Onelesson not listed below,becauseit has moreto Boase, J.P.2000. "BeyondGovernment?The Appealof
do with political thaneconomicconsiderations,may be Public-Private CanadianPublicAdmin-
Partnerships,"
worthnoting nonetheless.To the extent that voterswill istration43:75-92.
acceptuser-paysystemssuch as tolls morereadilyif the British Columbia.Ministry of Finance and Corporate
toll revenueis going to a privateconcessionairerather Relations.1996. Reportof the TaskForceon Private-
thantheirgovernment,publicofficialscommittedto user- PublicPartnerships:BuildingPartnerships.Victoria:
pay to finance the project may determine that a P3 Ministryof FinanceandCorporateRelations.
structurewill meet less publicresistance. 2002. An Introduction to Public-Private Partner-
ships. Victoria:Ministryof Finance and Corporate
430f course, if the privateprovidercan producethe
Relations.
service moreefficiently,thereis still a social gain to al-
CanadianUnionof PublicEmployees(CUPE).2002. The
locatingit the task, even if its priceis high. In this case, Facts, May.
while taxpayersmay not save any money,the economy
Coase, R. 1937. "TheNatureof the Firm,"Economica
still conservesresources.
4:386-405.
44The need for the continuingapplication of scarce Crocker, K. and S. Masten. 1996. "Regulationand Ad-
skills likely has muchto do with the popularityof P3s in ministered Contracts Revisited: Lessons from
developingcountries. Transaction-Cost Economicsfor PublicUtility Regu-
lation,"Journalof RegulatoryEconomics9:5-40.
45Forexample,the Frenchwatergiants like Vivendi, Daniels,R. and M. Trebilcock.1996. "PrivateProvision
whichprovideservicesto manymunicipalities in Franceand of Public Infrastructure:An OrganizationalAnalysis
elsewhere,can spreadsome of the fixed costs of design, of the Next PrivatizationFrontier,"Universityof To-
R&D,andmaintenance acrossa largenumberof projects. rontoLawJournal46:375-426.
review of the Britishexperiencewith Demsetz, H. 1968. "WhyRegulateUtilities,"Journalof
46Spackman's
P3s leads him to believe that "the main driversappear Law and Economics11:55-65.
still to be ideology and accounting"(2002, 283). That Dilger, R.J., R.R. Moffettand L. Struyk.1997. "Privati-
zation of MunicipalServices in America's Largest
said, he sees potentialbenefitsfrom P3s and believes a
numberof importantlessons have been learnedin Brit- Population Cities," Public AdministrationReview
ain (e.g., 297-98). 57:21-26.
Domberger,S. andP. Jensen.1997. "Contracting Outby
the PublicSector:Theory,Evidence,Prospects,"Ox-
REFERENCES ford Reviewof EconomicPolicy 13:67-78.
Fourie, F. C.v.N. and P. Burger.2000. "An Economic
Allan,J.R. 1999. "Public-Private Partnerships: A Review
Analysis and Assessmentof Public-PrivatePartner-
of the Literatureand Practice."Public Policy Paper
ships (PPPs),"SouthAfricanJournal of Economics
No. 4. Regina:Saskatchewan Instituteof PublicPolicy, 68:693-725.
Universityof Regina.(Withan additionalsection of Grossman,S. and 0. Hart. 1986. "TheCosts and Ben-
case studiespreparedby MichaelTrottierandJeffrey efits of Ownership:A Theoryof VerticalandLateral
Maguire.) Integration," Journalof PoliticalEconomy94:691-719.
Bennett,J. and E. Iossa. 2003. "BuildingandManaging Grout,P. 1997. "TheEconomicsof PrivateFinanceIni-
Facilitiesfor PublicServices."WorkingPaper,Brunel
tiative," Oxford Review of Economic Policy
University. 13(4):53-66.
Bentz,A., P.GroutandM. Halonen.2002. "Public-Private Hart,0. 1995.Firms,Contracts,andFinancialStructure.
Partnerships:What Should the State Buy?"CMPO Oxford:ClarendonPress.
WorkingPaperNo. 01/40. Bristol, UK: Leverhulme 2003. "Incomplete Contracts and Public Owner-
Centrefor Marketand Public Organisation,Univer-
ship: Remarks,and an Applicationto Public-Private
sity of Bristol. Partnerships," TheEconomicJournal113:C69-C73.
Besley,T. andM. Ghatak.2001. "Government versusPri-
Hart,O. and B. Holmstrom.1987. "TheTheoryof Con-
vate Ownershipof PublicGoods,"QuarterlyJournal
tracts,"in Advances in Economic Theory,ed. T.F.
of Economics116(4):1343-72. Bewley. New York:CambridgeUniversityPress.
Hart,0. and J. Moore. 1990. "PropertyRights and the Policyin Searchof a Rationale?"BritishMedicalJour-
Nature of the Firm,"Journal of Political Economy nal 324:1205-09.
98:1119-58. Poschmann,F. 2003. PrivateMeansto PublicEnds:The
Hart,O., A. Schleiferand R. Vishny.1997. "TheProper Futureof Public-PrivatePartnerships.C.D. HoweIn-
Scope of Government:Theory and Applicationsto stituteCommentary. Toronto:C.D. Howe Institute.
Prisons," Quarterly Journal of Economics Rosenau,P.,ed. 2000. Public-PrivatePolicyPartnerships.
112(4):1127-61. Cambridge,MA: MITPress.
Holmstrom,B. and J. Tirole. 1989. "TheTheoryof the Schmidt,K. 1996. "TheCosts and Benefitsof Privatiza-
Firm,"in Handbookof IndustrialOrganization,vol. tion:An IncompleteContractsApproach,"Journalof
1, Handbooks in Economics, no. 10, ed. R. Law,Economicsand Organization12:1-24.
Schlemanseeand R. Willig. NorthHolland:Elsevier Spackman,M. 2002. "Public-PrivatePartnerships:Les-
Science PublishingCompany. sons from the BritishApproach,"EconomicSystems
King, S. and R. Pitchford.2000. "Privateor Public?A 26:283-301.
Taxonomyof OptimalOwnershipand Management Trebilcock,M. 1994. TheProspectsforReinventingGov-
Regimes."WorkingPaper.Melbourne:Universityof ernment.Toronto:C.D. Howe Institute.
Melbourne. United Kingdom.National Audit Office. 2003a, PFI:
Klein, B., R. Crawfordand A. Alchian. 1978. "Vertical ConstructionPerformance.Reportby the Comptrol-
Integration,AppropriableRents,andthe Competitive ler andAuditorGeneral,HC 371, Session 2002-2003.
ContractingProcess,"Journalof Lawand Economics London:HMSO.
21:297-326. 2003b. The Operationand Performanceof PFI
McDavid,J.C.andE.G.Clemens.1995."Contracting Out Prisons.Reportby the ComptrollerandAuditorGen-
Local GovernmentServices: The B.C. Experience," eral, HC 700, Session 2002-2003. London:HMSO.
CanadianPublicAdministration38:177-93. Vining, A. and A. Boardman.1992. "Ownershipversus
McFetridge,D. 1997. The Economicsof Privatization. Competition:Efficiencyin PublicEnterprise," Public
C.D. Howe Institute BenefactorsLecture.Toronto: Choice73:205-39.
C.D. Howe Institute. Williamson,0. 1975.MarketsandHierarchies- Analysis
MottMacDonald.2002. Reviewof LargePublicProcure- andAntitrustImplications: A Studyof theEconomicsof
ment in the UK. Reportpreparedfor HM Treasury, InternalOrganization.NewYork:TheFreePress.
July. 1979. "Transaction-Cost Economics:The Gov-
Nova Scotia.Departmentof Finance.1997. Transferring ernanceof ContractualRelationships," Journalof Law
Risk in the Public/PrivatePartnerships.Halifax:De- and Economics22:233-61.
partmentof Finance. www.gov.ns.ca/fina/minister/ 1983. "CredibleCommitments:Using Hostages
p3guide/p3g.htm. to SupportExchange,"AmericanEconomicReview
Osborne,D. andT. Gaebler.1993. ReinventingGovern- 73:519-40.
ment.New York:Plume. 1985. The EconomicInstitutionsof Capitalism:
Pollock,A., J. ShaoulandN. Vickers.2002. "PrivateFi- Firms, Markets,Relational Contracting.New York:
nance and 'Value for Money' in NHS Hospitals:A The FreePress.