Rahul Shah

Period 1
AP Bio
3/9/2011

A.P. Biology Review Outline

Key: Covered in Trimester I

Covered in Trimester II

Covered in Trimester III

I. Molecules and Cells: Cells are the structural and functional units of life; cellular processes are
based on physical and chemical changes.

A. Chemistry of Life (7%)

1. Water
How do the unique chemical and physical properties of water make life on earth possible?
2. Organic molecules in organisms
What is the role of carbon in the molecular diversity of life?
How do cells synthesize and break down?
How do structures of biologically important molecules (carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic
acids) account for their functions?
3. Free energy changes
How do the laws of thermodynamics relate to the biochemical processes that provide energy to
living systems?
4. Enzymes
How do enzymes regulate the rate of chemical reactions?
How does the specificity of an enzyme depend on its structure?
How is the activity of an enzyme regulated?

B. Cells (10%)

1. Prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells

What are their similarities and differences?
What are their evolutionary relationships?
2. Membranes
What is the current model of the molecular architecture of membranes?
How do variations in this structure account for functional differences among membranes?
How does the structural organization of membranes provide for transport and recognition?
What are various mechanisms by which substances cross membranes?
3. Subcellular organization
How does compartmentalization organize a cell's functions?
How are the structures of the various subcellular organelles related to their functions?
How do organelles function together in cellular processes?
What factors limit cell size?
4. Cell cycle and its regulation
How does the cell cycle assure genetic continuity?
How does mitosis allow for the even distribution of genetic information to new cells?
What are the mechanisms of cytokinesis?
How is the cell cycle regulated?
How can aberrations in the cell cycle lead to tumor formation?

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 Rahul Shah
Period 1
AP Bio
3/9/2011

C. Cellular Energetics (8%)

1. Coupled reactions
What is the role of ATP in coupling the cell's anabolic and catabolic processes?
How does chemiosmosis function in bioenergetics?
2. Fermentation and cellular respiration
How are organic molecules broken down by catabolic pathways?
What is the role of oxygen in energy-yielding pathways?
How do cells generate ATP in the absence of oxygen?
3. Photosynthesis
How does photosynthesis convert light energy into chemical energy?
How are the chemical products of the light-trapping reactions coupled to the synthesis of
carbohydrates?
What kinds of photosynthetic adaptations have evolved in response to different environmental
conditions?
What interactions exist between photosynthesis and cellular respiration?

II. Heredity and Evolution: Hereditary events control the passage of structural and functional
information from one generation to the next.

A. Heredity (8%)

1. Meiosis and gametogenesis

What features of meiosis are important in sexual reproduction? Meiosis allows to gametes to
from and eventually become one. Essentially, it is allowing two genetic donors to create
offspring. The sexual role it plays allows for more diversity than asexual reproduction
Why is meiosis important in heredity? Meiosis is extremely important in heredity. It is
detrimental to allow the passing on of traits. There is a 50% chance that the offspring will be a
female or male depending on the chromosomes. Independent assortment and crossing over also
play a role to increase the variety of possible genetic possibilities….
How is meiosis related to gametogenesis? Gametogenesis includes making the cell (like sperm
or egg) AND the meiosis function. For example, in males, gametogenesis includes the meiosis
component of making a sperm cell as well the process of making the sperm tail, etc…
What are the similarities and differences between gametogenesis in animals and gametogenesis
in plants? Gametogenesis in animals is the creation of sperm and egg and it also includes
meiosis. It is carried out in the gonads (testes in males and ovaries in women).The result of it is 4
haploid gametes.
2. Eukaryotic chromosomes
How is genetic information organized in the eukaryotic chromosome? Genetic information is
organized quite uniquely in eukaryotic chromosomes. The double helix strands are originally long
ad stretched out in the form of chromosomes; however they can be compacted if they are wound
around the histones. Then, they become 30 mm fibers, then they become looped domains, and
last they become their most fully condensed form which is when they are scaffolding.
How does this organization contribute to both continuity of and variability in the genetic
information? This organization can help to protect the DNA. A is only bonded to T and C is always
bounded to G as the width of the DNA strand must equal to three and this combination of nucleic
acids always adds up to three. A-T forms 2 hydrogen bonds while C-G forms 3. These are safety
mechanisms so the DNA doesn’t mutate. Independent assortment (increases possibilities of
dom-recessive combinations with different setups of the chromosomes), crossing over (parts of
chromosome break apart and cross over with another chromosome where the compatible part
has also broken off), and sexual reproduction (each organism participating gives only 50% of

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 Rahul Shah
Period 1
AP Bio
3/9/2011

their chromosomes so there are a huge amount of possibilities) serve to contribute to variability
of our genetic information.
3. Inheritance patterns
How did Mendel's work lay the foundation of modern genetics? Heredity first began to be
understood due to the work of Austrian monk and botanist Gregor Mendel (1822-1884), who
discovered that hereditary factors determine all hereditary traits. Although Mendel was not
recognized for his work at the time, modern genetic science is solidly based on Mendel's
findings. Experimenting with pea plants, Mendel noticed that the plants inherited traits in a
predictable way. It was as though the pea plants had a pair of factors responsible for each trait.
Even though he never actually saw them, Mendel was convinced that tiny independent units
determined how an individual would develop. Until then, traits were thought to be passed on
through a mixing of the mother and father's characteristics, much like a blending of two liquids.
Mendel's laws of heredity were rediscovered in 1900, when they became vitally important to
biologists. Among other things, Mendel's laws established heredity as a combining of
independent units, not a blending of two liquids. Danish geneticist Wilhelm Johannsen (1857-
1927), a strong supporter of Mendel's theories, coined the term "gene" to replace the variety of
terms used to describe hereditary factors. His definition of the gene led him to distinguish
between genotype (an organism's genetic makeup) and phenotype (an organism's appearance).
What are the principal patterns of inheritance? The Law of Segregation states that when any
individual produces gametes, the copies of a gene separate so that each gamete receives only
one copy. A gamete will receive one allele or the other. Mendel formulated this principle after
discovering another principle now known as Mendel's law of segregation. This principle states
that the alleles for a trait separate when gametes are formed. These allele pairs are then
randomly united at fertilization. Mendel arrived at this conclusion by performing monohybrid
crosses. These were cross-pollination experiments with pea plants that differed in one trait, for
example pod color.

B. Molecular Genetics (9%)

1. RNA and DNA structure and function

How do the structures of nucleic acids relate to their functions of information storage and protein
synthesis? DNA is good for storing information for many reasons. The backbone that it has is
beneficial for keeping bases ordered. Also, the fact that it has 2 sides means that it can replicate
both sides at once, and it is more protective.
What are the similarities and differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic genomes? DNA is
extremely long and extremely organized. It has a deoxyribose sugar and a phosphate backbone
which when combined with its double helix shape helps prevent free radicals from damaging the
nucleotides. DNA also has a guanine cap and a Poly A tail to help preserve DNA. Telomeres are
also present at the end of the DNA so that there is no erosion at the ends. RNA on the other
hand is single stranded, and small enough to leave the nucleus through the nucleic pores. RNA
and DNA are essentially both made of DNA though, as the RNA is transcribed from DNA. Also
they both have similar purposes and functions.
2. Gene regulation
What are some mechanisms by which gene expression is regulated in prokaryotes and
eukaryotes? In prokaryotes, an operon regulates protein synthesis as it is a series of self-
regulating genes that works in concert. The promoter and operator within the operon control
gene expression. These segments overlap, and their interaction determines whether the process
will start and when it will stop. In eukaryotes, there are multiple gene-regulating mechanisms.
Histone packing prevents the RNA polymerase from contacting the DNA, thus not allowing it to
be transcribed. DNA methylation also plays a role in regulating gene expression as it prevents
the genes from being expresses, DNA acetylation on the other hand encourages that gene(s) to
be expressed.

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 Rahul Shah
Period 1
AP Bio
3/9/2011

3. Mutation
In what ways can genetic information be altered? Genetic info can be altered in many ways. The
order of the DNA acids can be changed. At the nucleic levels, point mutations can occur like
substitutions (substituting once base for another), insertions (inserting a base into the order),
deletions (…), and frame shifts (shifting the whole order to the L or R). At the level of nucleotide
strings, inversion, rearrangement, and duplication can occur. At the level of the entire
chromosome, translocation (movement of gene to a chromosome)m fusion (2 chromosomes
combine), fission (one chromosome splits), and duplication (can range from entire segment to an
entire genome)
What are some effects of these alterations? These alterations can have many effects. It can have
no effect, or it can mess up an organism completely and cause various other deformities and
diseases. Examples of structural chromosomal abnormalities include cri du chat syndrome. Cri
du chat means "cat cry" in French. Children with this syndrome have an abnormally developed
larynx that makes their cry sound like the mewing of a cat in distress. They also have a small
head, misshapen ears, and a rounded face, as well as other systemic defects. These children
usually die in infancy. Cri du chat is caused by a deletion of a segment of DNA in chromosome 5.
Also, sometimes these mutations can sometimes be favorable, like for an example, if a
bacterium somehow obtains a mutation that makes it resistant to an antibacterial drug (this is
only favorable for the bacteria not us obviously….)
4. Viral structure and replication
What is the structure of viruses? Viruses consist of strands of the genetic material nucleic acid,
the basis of a genome, which is surrounded by a protein coat called a capsid. The capsid
protects the genome and gives the virus its shape. Viruses may be either helical or icosahedral.
Some viruses display a combination of helical and icosahedral symmetry, known as complex
symmetry. The capsid is often subdivided into individual protein subunits called capsomeres. The
organization of the capsomeres yields the symmetry of the virus. Animal viruses often form an
envelope around the capsid. This envelope is rich in proteins, lipids, and glycoprotein molecules.
What are the major steps in viral reproduction? First the virus’s tail attaches itself to the host cell
which will soon have the virus DNA. After this, the virus’ sheath penetrated the hosts cell wall
and injects the head of itself into the host cell. Lastly, the ivrions burst which then causes the
cell to burst carrying huge amount of the virus cells that first infected it. There are two cycles,
lytic and lysogenic… Look below…

How do viruses transfer genetic material between cells? The virus attaches itself onto the cell
and injects its DNA into the cell, causing the cell to make more viruses who then repeat this
process over and over. The DNA flows through the head and down the tail…

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 Rahul Shah
Period 1
AP Bio
3/9/2011

5. Nucleic acid technology and applications

What are some current recombinant technologies? Inserting DNA into bacteria using viruses and
other methods. Also, human insulin is able to be produced from bacterial cell which is a great
help for many.
What are some practical applications of nucleic acid technology? DNA gels, mapping the human
genome, probes used to find specific sequences of DNA, using it to modify crops to grow more
food and be resistant to certain diseases and temperatures.
What legal and ethical problems may arise from these applications? The two biggest problems
are containment (there have been many instances of supposedly controlled life forms escaping
into the wild and spreading their drastically altered DNA) and unintended consequences (life
forms are complex and often changing one thing changes another). Two prototypical examples
of this are Star Link corn (which caused a national recall of all corn-related products and even so
some was consumed by humans before it was tested and determined safe) and Showa Denko
tryptophan (the wildly popular nutritional supplement somehow killed seven people and caused
a ban which lasts to this day).

C. Evolutionary Biology (9%)

1. Early evolution of life

What are the current biological models for the origins of biological macromolecules? Atmosphere
of earth chemically reducing in nature, electrical activity can then catalyze the creation of
certain basic small molecules of life. BIG BANG theory (explosion created all the universe)
What are the current models for the origins of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells? Eukaryotic cells
evolved from prokaryotic cells through the ingestion of a "mitochondria-like" prokaryote by
another predatory prokaryote... It couldn't digest another prokaryotic cell that was similar to the
mitochondria found in eukaryotic cells and it lacked the enzymes to digest it, so the
"mitochondria-like" prokaryote lived inside its captor, ultimately providing a significant
advantage in energy production.
2. (The oldest living prokaryotic cells found are approx. 3.5 billion years old, and the oldest living
eukaryotic cells found are approx. 1.4 billion years old.)
3. Evidence for evolution
What types of evidence support an evolutionary view of life? The Fossil Record (increasingly
complex organisms over time), catastrophism (after huge disaster, organism die and reset to the
simple form, and then we can see them again slowly evolve and change), extinctions.
Comparative anatomy shows homologous and vestigial structure, biogeography shows that
similar organism came from similar places… Gradualism, punctuated equilibrium (most
reproducing species will remain rel. the same throughout their geographical history)…
4. Mechanisms of evolution
What is the role of natural selection in the process of evolution? Natural selection allows
organism that are best fitted to the environment to survive and therefore, create offspring. This
process insures that the species will progress toward a genetic build that favors the current
conditions and environment, which is, essentially, evolution
How are heredity and natural selection involved in the process of evolution? Natural selection
was already spoken about above, but to recap, it favors organisms in a species that are best
adapted to their niche and habitat, therefore they reproduce, therefore, their “good” genes are
passed on to their offspring → evolution. As far as heredity, it is how the favorable genes from
the parents transfer to the offspring, so without it, evolution cannot occur.
What mechanisms account for speciation and macroevolution? Speciation and macroevolution
occur when there is a split in the organisms (like a fissure forms), etc. For example allopatric,
peripatric, parapatric, and sympatric. Although these are not all geographic, they still are
mechanisms that account for speciation and macroevolution.

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 Rahul Shah
Period 1
AP Bio
3/9/2011

What different patterns of evolution have been identified and what mechanisms are responsible
for each of these patterns?

1) Divergent evolution describes two or more species that evolved from a common ancestor.

2) Convergent evolution describes two or more unrelated species that have adopted similar adaptations to their
environment.

3) Parallel evolution describes two or more species that have continued to evolve similar characteristics even after
their divergence from a common ancestor.

4) Coevolution describes the evolution of one species in response to the evolution of another. Coevolution usually
occurs in a predator-prey relationship.

III. Organisms and Populations: The relationship of structure to function is a theme that is common
to all organisms; the interactions of organisms with their environment is the major theme in ecology.

A. Diversity of Organisms (8%)

1. Evolutionary patterns
What are the major body plans of plants and animals?
2. Survey of the diversity of life
What are representative organisms from the Monera, Fungi, and Protista?
What are representative members of the major animal phyla and plant divisions?
3. Phylogenetic classification
What are the distinguishing characteristics of each group (kingdoms and the major phyla and
divisions of animals and plants)?
4. Evolutionary relationships
What is some evidence that organisms are related to each other? The Strongest evidence that
organisms are related to each other comes from the universal genetic code. All organisms speak
the same genetic language no matter their size or shape. Also, humans speak so many
languages, but are all essentially the same beings. This proves that everything on earth evolved
from a single common ancestor that has the universal genetic ode within them.
How do scientists study evolutionary relationships among organisms? Taxonomist use an eight
level system to classify living things based on shared characteristics. Scientists also used shared
characteristics to hypothesize how closely related living things are. The more characteristics the
organisms share, the more closely related the organisms may be. For example, the platypus,
brown bear, lion, and house cat are thought to be related because they share many
characteristics. These animals have hair and mammary glands, so they are grouped together as
mammals. But they can also be further classified into more-specific groups.
How is this information used in classification of organisms?

B. Structure and Function of Plants and Animals (32%)

Reproduction, growth, and development
What patterns of reproduction and development are found in plants and animals and how are they
regulated?
What is the adaptive significance of alternation of generations in the major groups of plants?
1. Both asexual and sexual reproduction occurs in the animal kingdom
2. Diverse mechanisms of asexual reproduction enable animals to produce identical offspring
rapidly.
3. Reproductive cycles and patterns vary extensively among animals.
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 Rahul Shah
Period 1
AP Bio
3/9/2011

Mechanisms of Sexual Reproduction

1. Internal and external fertilization depend upon mechanisms ensuring that mature sperm
encounter mature eggs of the same species.
2. Species with internal fertilization usually produce fewer zygotes but provide more parental
care that species with external fertilzation.
3. Complex reproductive strategies have evolved in many animal phyla.

1. Structural, physiological, and behavioral adaptations

How does the organization of cells, tissues, and organs determine structure and function in plant
and animal systems? Cells make up tissues witch make up organs. Their organization has a
profound impact on the structure and function of animal systems. Each organ, cell, and tissue is
interdependent on each other. For example, the heart requires the lounges to put air into the
blood, and the kidney to clean and filter the blood. Cells are specialized; meaning only a part of
their DNA is actually activated. They work together to form tissues which then work together to
form organs. Each level is specialized, meaning they are put together to perform specific
functions within an organism. For example, in humans, the kidney cleans the blood; however, it
doesn’t pump blood like the heart.
How are structure and function related in the various organ systems? There are many different
organ systems within the body. The circulatory system transports substances throughout the
body. The vascular tissue are the tubes that also transport blood, the respiratory system allows
gas exchange between the circulatory system and the external environment, the digestive
system breaks apart large molecules in food until they are small enough t be absorbed into the
circulatory system to be eventually transported to cells. The endocrine system controls bodily
system and helps us maintain homeostasis. The muscular system is stimulated by the nervous
system to allow us to move and such. The skeletal system provides support and structure to the
body and protects vital organs. The reproductive system allows is to create offspring, the
immune system fights infections and prevents us from foreign substances; the lymphatic system
filters substances through the blood. As one can see, these various organs are related in both
structure and function, For example, the lymphatic system filters blood which is transported from
the circulatory system. The respiratory system puts the required gases into the blood which is
transported by the circulatory system which is filtered by the lymphatic system. All these
functions are intertwined and serve one purpose: to allow the organism to have healthy,
functional life.
How do the organ systems of animals interact? They react in many ways. For example, the
circulatory system needs oxygen in the red blood cells to nurture the cells so they won’t die. If
the respiratory system was not functioning, then oxygen could not be exchanged and the cells in
the body would die. If the air does not get to the brain and other vital organs then they would
shut down and affect other systems and eventually the whole organism. Structure is extremely
specialized because of tissues for organs which helps play its role in the system. If it did not
work, then again the whole would suffer.
What adaptive features have contributed to the success of various plants and animals on land?
2. Response to the environment
What are the responses of plants and animals to environmental cues, and how do hormones
mediate them?

C. Ecology (10%)

1. Population dynamics
What models are useful in describing the growth of a population?
How is population size regulated by abiotic and biotic factors?

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 Rahul Shah
Period 1
AP Bio
3/9/2011

2. Communities and ecosystems

How is energy flow through an ecosystem related to trophic structure (trophic levels)?
How do elements (e.g., carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur, oxygen) cycle through ecosystems?
How do organisms affect the cycling of elements and water through the biosphere?
How do biotic and abiotic factors affect community structure and ecosystem function?
3. Global issues
In which ways are humans affecting biogeochemical cycles?

Key: Covered in Trimester I

Covered in Trimester II

Covered in Trimester III

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