The Arab-Israeli Conflict (prescribed topic) Machalicek

Tomas

Introduction

Early Zionism:

- diaspora of jews

- Herzl: Der Judenstadt

- called the First Zionist Congress 1897

- aim -> achieve Jewish state

- Palestine under control of Ottoman government

- 1903 Chamberlain offered the Jews area in E. Africa – opposed by Russian Jews

- Brit + Zionists had the came colonialist Jews – arabs inferior, no cultural significance, A.
didn’t use the land productively

- “a land without people for people without land”

- not all jews thought the same

Great Britain

- colonial interests in ME (Middle East) -> economic – exploit the resources and use the
labour

- Jewish interest was territorial – get land, remove arabs

- Brit needed arabs for labour + if conflict arose in Palestine – good for Brit -> troops would
have to go in and stay = could protect the Suez Canal and create buffer (against French…)

- by 1914 2% of Palestine have been purchased by Jewish settlers – 60,000 Jews (total pop),
644,000 Arabs

2 Major obstructions for the Zionists

in 1915 GB declared to Sharif Hussein of Mecca that Brit would support national
independence in Arab speaking world -> in return Arabs would rebel against Ottoman
Empire and help them in WWI. -> results: Arabs rebelled against the Ottoman, led by
Laurence of Arabia

Sykes – Picot agreement – agreement between Engl an Fr., Arab world would be divided
between Engl and Fr.
British, Fr, Italians and Russians would jointly share allied control over Palestine Jews in
Palestine would have the same rights as Arabs

After the WW1 Brit wanted to have exclusive military presence in Palestine –

- to protect Suez Canal

- Air routes to India

Problems –

- how to exclude French?

- Churchill’s ….

Move by the Zionist to create J. state would be benefit to British – violence and conflict –>
would justify British military presence If there was a prosperous Jewish state it could also
help in the defense of Suez canal The Pro-Zionist British undersecretary M. Sykes made great
efforts to support both British and Zionist interests in the area

1917 -> Balfour declaration

= second shock and betrayal to the Arabs

World War I. and Balfour Declaration

- Brit. wanted to gain control of Palestine by playing peacemaker in their struggle for a
statehood but also Brit needed help for winning WWI. – needed help of a neutral united
state

- = another motive to offer the Jews a state and Jews would press USA to enter the war on
Brit side

- Negotiations between Brit, pro-Z and anti-Z

- Final draft of Balfour declaration was to achieve balance between pro and anti-Z by using
vague language about ‘a national home’ in Palestine -> ‘juggling act’

- H. Samuel – control of administration in Palestine (Mandate established 1922)

- Obstacles to cooperation and to the set up of self-government in Palestine

• Palestinian Arabs reject, want independent state

• in the mandate the British insisted that the Balfour Decl would be included in the text of
the mandate -> Arab cannot accept the mandate since they would accept also the Balfour
decl.
• Jews do not want democratic self-government in Palestine – 90% of pop are not Jewish –
would loose all voting

• -> Jews want more migration and/or get rid of Christians

- Mandate system became impossible – goals cannot be compromised

- Struggle between Arab nationalists and the issue of Jewish immigration and land
purchase led to violence in Palestine
- Violence directed against the British by the Palestinian Arabs and later by the Jewish
community
- Palestinian Arabs were unable to stop the waves of Jewish immigration and land
purchases

1917 – 1935: - Jewish pop. 60,000 – 400,000 - Jewish Agency (= Jewish leadership in pre-
Israeli state in Palestine) stopped employing Arabs and employed Jews

1929 – Jewish Congress – Jabotinsky pronounced “immigration masses”, then protests in

Jerusalem – massacres of Jews in Safed, Haifa…uprising of Arabs 1929

- 133 killed Jews, 116 Arabs killed

- British police intervened and investigated – main cause was related to landless Arabs
because of Zionist expansion, commission which was set up – decision: to control the
immigration

- 1932-1935 Arab anger particularly over Jewish immigration increases and leads to violence

- Hitler comes to power -> more serious situation, 145,000 Jews immigrated to Palestine

- Arabs rebelled again when migration went over the limit permitted by British

- First attacks were on the Jews, then the British army – 1936

- British bombed Palestinian villages, between 5 and 10,000 Arabs killed by 1939

- 1937 – the Peel Commission said that it was the Jewish agencies intention to create a state
that was responsable for the Arab violence

- Recommendation – end the British mandate and partition Palestine into Jewish and Arab
state

- Arab part would be united with Transjordan

- Both states would have to have military alliance with GB

- Palestinians Arabs rejected

WWII begins and British strategy changes

• need oil for the war from Arab states – need to change to hostility towards

Britain -> Britain rejected the idea of Jewish state

1939 White Paper

- aim – to win the support of the Arabs

- 3 major issues
•state of Palestine was to be established within 10 years where the Arab and Jews
would share the government
• Jewish immigration was to be limited to 75,000 over the next 5 years -> would help
the Jewish refugee problem in Europe
• land sales were to be limited
- Appeasement to the Arabs, betrayal of Jews
- Arab terror declined

- Many Jews joined the British army and were well trained

- Many of these became members of the Hagannah – illegal Jewish army

- Jews used diplomatic pressure on Britain, USA and Soviet Union to get around the
restrictions on the immigration of the White Paper.

- The Jews also had political rebellion of 1948

- The Biltmore programme – demand “immediate establishment of the Jewish

Commonwealth”

- ½ million Jews in America -> Jews lobbied politicians -> 1946 Truman requested that
British allowed in 100,000 refugees

- Biltmore programme didn’t achieve its aims

- Jewish groups continued to smuggle in Jewish immigrants and continued terrorist

attacks against British to push them out

US Interests in Middle East

- Wanted control of the middle east oil and air routes -> don’t want to anger arab nations by
openly supporting the Jews but by the end of the war the US public supported the Zionists
(Holocaust)
-> Roosevelt followed a policy of supporting the pro-Zionists but secretly assuring the Saudi
Arabian king that he’s not going to support the Jews over the Arabs

- 1945 he takes the same approach

- Tensions between Britain and America

Terrorism

- Britain worried about Jewish terrorism

- The aims of terrorists was to get the British out to incr. the immigration

- Hagannah worked with other groups: Irgun – M. Begin, LEHI (Fighters for the freedom of
Israel) – Shamir -> were in war with British

- Emergency laws such as curfews -> made Palestine a police state

- Terrorists blew up bridges, assassinated Lord Moyne (British MP) - 1946 Irgun doubled in
size and destroyed any facility needed by British to govern Palestine (police stations,
railroads…)

- 1946 bomb plot at King David hotel in Jerusalem

- By end of 1946 373 people killed by terrorists (300 out of those were civilians)

- Jewish terrorism was successful bc

• of financial support from US,

• also Jews felt justified by Holocaust to use ruthless methods

• British had to be careful with Jews bc of the Holocaust

Britain makes last appeal to stop the war with Jews Britain problems at home:

• Berlin

• housing problems

• empire is falling apart (India’s independence)

• financial problems exhausted after the war

Anglo-American committee of enquiry set up in 1946 – analyzing situation and coming up

with solution -> proposal:

• 100,000 Jews allowed to immigrate into Palestine > chosen

• Palestine should become a “UN Trusteeship” – bi-national federation of 2 states and
eventually federation of two states with Un or British overseeing affairs (>chosen) or two
independent sovereign states

These plans did not succeed

Arab Terrorism

• Directed against its own people

• Lacked financial support and were disorganized (reflects in civil war)

• Had competing groups among themselves

• compared with Hagannah they were small in size

Feb 1947 British withdrew from Palestine and passed the matter to UN

••••

United Nations mandate

UN Proposal 1947 -> Partition

- established UNSCOP May ’47 that came up with a report

• partition of Palestine into 2 independent states – one Jewish and one Arab but the
Jerusalem would be an international city

o response: the Palestinian Arabs rejected partition – demographic grounds (Jewish land
56% of land but made up only 3% of population) -> Arabs: it’s step by the Jews to gain all the
Palestine

• Jewish agency accepted – saw it as a step to Jewish state – believed they could make a deal
with Transjordan to eliminate the Arab state

• Arabs thought that UN should find land for Jews somewhere else

UN Plan undermined

- G. Meir (later Israeli PM) and king Abdullah made a secret mutual non aggression pack (not
signed, mutual understanding)

• king to take Arab Palestine and not interfere with the Jewish state

• Palestine would be Jewish and larger Transjordan

- The Big Three support partition:

• Britain: get out of Palestine, out of problem of J. terrorism / expensive of controlling and
fighting J. terrorism -> moving away from an empire to commonwealth system (with trade
agreement and military access)

• USSR: to increase their influence in Middle East, P was potential opportunity to gain
friendly state

• USA: worried about Arab oil supply but also under pro-Zionist impression of Holocaust,
later pro-partition to favour Zionists in US

- Nov 1947 proposal for partition passed by UN General Assembly

• British would move out by May 1948
- after partition civil war broke out (Dec 47 – May 48)

Factors leading to partition:

- strategic interests of Big Three

- the influence of he Holocaust
- the western view concerning Jewish and Arab cultural differences
- the shift of self-determination from Arab and Jews

Civil War Nov/Dec. 1947 – May 1948

-a fter the resolution was past, fighting broke out between Jews and Palestinian Arabs

- no UN peacekeeping force that could enforce partition

- weaknesses of UN partition:

• no legal authority to enforce partition

• US are keeping distance from UN forces -> would have to work with Soviet forces

• the international community was very slow to enforce partition -> recognized that it was
land with majority of Arabs -> resolution led to hostility

- Arab strengths and weaknesses:

• Arab state proposed by UN was not viable (=not likely to survive) economically and could
not defend itself -> vulnerable to intervention by Transjordan or Israel
• local Arab forces # only about 3,000 volunteers
• the Arab league offered little military help to local Palestinians (est. 1945 to represent Arab
States) -> fearful because British troops still in Palestine
• the League sent irregulars + Muslin brotherhood volunteers from Egypt = less than 10,000
• not coordinated since many groups -> not effective
• Palestinians had no government authority -> did not have the leadership equal t Jewish
Agency
• not coordinated and no clear political strategy and the interest of some Arab was linked to
self-interest (particularly Transjordan saw opportunity to extend its territory)
- Jewish strengths and weaknesses:
• Hagannah – 60,000
• military supplies – some enquired during war years
• excellent leadership and organization
• experienced soldiers
• clear strategy – plan D (this contributed to their success in early months)
- in early months arabs gained control of the highways so convoys of food to Jerusalem
were stopped, particularly the Jewish side
- - Ben Gurion had to change tactics -> Dec 1947 policy of ‘aggressive defense’ –
destruction of Arab homes, Arabs pushed out of Jewish areas
• led to even more intense violence - the aggressive policy was made more possible
bc of arms arriving from Czechoslovakia (money)
Plan D
- involved the eviction (ejection) of Arabs in Jewish territory
- take over of Arab areas in the north Palestine around the sea of Galilee and corridor
between Tel Aviv and Jerusalem
- Jewish settlements in Arab areas were to be secured, not evacuated
- corridors going outwards would secure the villages
- plan violated the UN resolution and the secret non-aggression pack with Transjordan
- Jews sent Irgun to do the attacks -> say that it was out of control
- Ben Gurion taking risk – UN may condemn, British still there but if he’s successful he
would enlarge the territory before establishment of Isreal
Operation Nachshon – Jewish agency operation to open the highway from Tel Aviv to
Jerusalem
- major defeat for Arabs
- many wealthy landowners and Palestinians have left -> people in villages feel unsecure
-> more left
- April 48 – Jewish forces began to force Arabs from villages inside the area that was to
be Jewish state
- nearly all villages along the coast between Tel Aviv and Haifa were cleared of Arabs -
bitter struggle to control the roads leading to Jerusalem -> massacres

- Palestinians attacked Jewish settlements -> Jews retaliated – but with carefully chosen
targets -> aim: to get as many Arabs out as possible

- April 48 – Irgun led by Begin attacked village called Deir Yassin (inside Arab territory) ->
killed everyone

• result: entire Arab communities began to flee (even before the Jews took over their
homes) -> mass exodus
• by May - 48 370,000 Arabs have fled from what was to become a new Jewish state to other
countries as refugees

• Weizmann – “a miraculous simplification of the problem”

War 1948 - 1949

-

- May 14 1948 David Ben-Gurion declared the State of Israel Weizmann was the
president, David Ben-Gurion PM 2 weeks before the declaration of state Arab League
decided to go to war
• aim: to liberate Palestine
• in reality many other motives
• Arabs were very divided and each had personal interests
• Syria, Saudi Arabia. Iraq, Lebanon and Egypt -> wanted to prevent Transjordan
expanding in the expense of the Palestinian Arabs -> that’s why Transjordan went to
war
• King Abdulah – commander in chief of all Arab forces
• Arab forces: 30,000 X Israel 65,000
- Arabs not prepared for war
- each followed their own political and territorial interest
- lack of unity, no concrete plan

Israeli strengths:

- unified command

- coordination

- experienced soldiers

- heavy weapons. large amounts. bought from Czechoslovakia

- extremist groups – Hagannah, Igrun, LEHI -> dedicated

- aim: survival of their state (much easier than arab’s)

First Phase

15th of May – 10th of June 1948

Tel Aviv front:

- Egyptian brigade moved up South Coast towards Tel Aviv

- After 15 day Egyptians paralyzed, Tel Aviv secured by Israel

North Front
- Syrian, Lebanon and Iraqi forces crossed the borders but forced to withdraw shortly

- stalemate -> lack of ammunition on Arabs side

Jerusalem Front

- major battleground

- most important location for both

- Kind Abdullah wanted to secure E. part of the city (old city)

- Jews wanted control of all incl. E. part

- Isreal offensive didn’t succeed – blocked by Abdullah, only controlled the West

- 10th of June – UN persuaded all sides to ceasefire

- Egypt, Syria, Iraq not opened for talks

- during ceasefire Israel gained new weapons from Czechoslovakia

- Britain obeyed embargo so other sides got nothing

 advantage for Israeli

Second Phase

9th – 18th July ‘48

- Egypt broke the truce (peace)

- Isreal went offensive

- Israeli aim: widen the corridor leading to Jerusalem taking land allocated to Arabs

- successful but the Arab League still held on to E. Jerusalem

- in South the Israelis stopped further Egyptian advance in Negev, Israeli stopped them

- In North they took control of all the Galilee region incl. Arab land.

- overall Israel improved its position

September – ceasefire

- UN have mediator called Count Bernadotte – peace plan

• to give more territory in South to Arab, Jerusalem remain under UN, North – more land for
Israeli
• within few days assassinated by Stern gang

- IDF – Israeli defense force – renamed Hagannah, now legal

Oct - Jan ‘49

- Isreal broke second ceasefire

- concentrated their effort in South, drives Egyptians back to Egypt and took control of
Negev
- Isreal bombed Cairo
- campaign against Palestinian Arabs increased even though Egypt wanted to
negotiate, Ben-Gurion’s goal was to get Negev
- Transjordan didn’t help Egypt -> Egypt’s army shattered
- ceasefire Jan 49 -> end of war

Results:

- Isreal lost 6,000 ppl = 1% of their population

- controlled 79% of what was the British mandate (Palestine) instead of 55% outlined by UN

- now had more defensible borders

- now was well organized stable state

- 700,000 Palestinian Arabs became refugees

• some fled, others driven out (Israelis did have policy of expulsion)

• most have now still not returned

• ended up in Gaza,West bank, Jordan (majority), Lebanon, Syria, Iraq…

- the flight (exodus) of the arabs + the events from 1947-49 became known in Arabic
as “NaKbah” (Al Nakba = catastrophe) – for Israeli “the war of national liberation”

Armistice agreements

- signed under UN supervision

- Isreal + Egypt

• confirmed their pre-war borders

• Gaza area of Arab Palestine under Egyptian military rule

Transjordan + Isreal

• Abdullah kept control of West bank – part of his new kingdom Jordan
• did remain until ‘67

• included the (East) old city of Jerusalem

• preferred divided Jerusalem than let it be controlled by UN

- Isreal + Syria

• Syria had control of some N. territory that was supposed to be in the new Jewish State

• July ’48 Syria would leave -> demilitarized area

Peace treaties

- armistice was to lead to peace treaty but took nearly 30 y.

- 2 key issues where no agreement could be found

• Borders

• Refugees

- Israeli created the problem -> refugees should have right to return

- Israelis -> they have fled by themselves, can return is most stay outside Israel

- Other obstacles:

• public opinion in Arab countries -> extremely bitter, hatred towards Israel

• Israeli government -> peace desirable but not worth the price of giving up any territory or
allowing back large no. of Palestinians

How did Israel win the war?

1) Zionist interpretation

- fighting for its own survival against Arab forces

-Israel had far few weapons

- Arab forces were always larger and had more weapons (true in the very beginning of war)

2) Revisionist interp.

- access to Israeli documents -> Israeli historians (Avi Shlaim, Benny Morris)

- focuses on 2 main areas:

• military balance on the two sides

o myth that Arabs had more troops & weapons is only true in the beginning

o Israeli army quickly built up, Arabs not as fast

o Israelis poorly equipped at start (during 1st truce access to weapons) – equired a lot more,
from then on they were better equipped

o gained experience and training from the British (25,000 had been in British army); had
skills in organization and technology of war

o only 10,000 in Arab League had experience

• war aims of the Arabs

o Jews of Palestine recognized they will need a force to establish their state (part. under
Ben-Gurion) -> clear aim, united in that

o Arabs had no strong, united leadership that B-G had provided

o Palestinians were badly let down by their leaders bc. they have left Palestine

o Arab countries did plan invasion not before April 48 (month before Israeli state was
established) o Arab leaders not united in goals – fighting for their own interest o little
coordination in their efforts, lot of suspicion (part. Syria and Egypt suspicious of K. Abdullah)
Kings Abdullah and Israelis o before war secret agreement (G.Meir non aggression pact) o let
Jewish leaders believe he’ll not invade territory assigned to J. o Abdullah defended E. region
of J. but they also didn’t support Egyptians when they fought Israel o Army from Transjordan
always invaded what was to be the new Arab state o Israel exploited the understanding with
Transjordan to break the chain of hostile arab states o depend the divisions among arab
states

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Palestinian Diaspora
*notes from the handout*

12/05/2010 08:46:00

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Suez Crisis of 1956

Background Israeli relations with the Arab countries

12/05/2010 08:46:00
Syria - agreed to have a demilitarized zone on the border but it was inside what was
supposed to be Israel - neither would have troops in - many villages in it and Israelis tried to
force them out - tried to develop Jewish settlements - frequent shelling from both sides -
became conflict area - Israel tried to divert the water from river Jordan into irrigation
projects they were developing (Kibbutz) Jordan (Trans -> Jordan 1948/9) - tensions along the
borders - Abdullah assassinated ‘49 - 1 mil Palest. in Jordan with full citizenship - many
wanted to return to Israel - some of the Palestinians carried out raids into Israel (attack,
steal…) - Israel would target Arab villages – retaliation - Qibya – 50 killed ‘53

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Egypt - 300,000 Pal. in Gaza under Egyptian control - most refugees, many wanted go back -
frequent raids into Israel - some carried out by Pal armed militia group – fedayeen (self-
sacrifice) • aim: to engage in Guerrilla activities against Israeli settlements - most were
unarmed Palestinians - IDF retaliated - raids and reprisals intensified in mid 50s Emergence
of Nasser - 1952 – group of young army officers plotted to overthrow the king of Egypt
Farouk – angry at the results of the war / refugee crisis / king was unpopular - ’53 Egypt
becomes republic - ’54 Nasser becomes president • aim: to make Egypt truly independent
meaning free Egypt of foreign (British) troops - Suez vital for British, had 70,000 troops
within the region - long talks, Britain agrees to move out - Canal was guaranteed to stay
opened for shipping - Brit and US want to keep on good terms with Nasser, want Arab
support in Middle-E against the Soviet Union (Cold War politics!) - the US pursuing the policy
of containment and its ideological influence

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’55 at the height of the Cold War GB formed anti-Soviet defense organization with Turkey,
Pakistan, Iraq, Iran, US (unofficially) – Baghdad Pact Egypt was critical of pact, saw it as an
attempt by the western imperialism trying to influence the Arab affairs; trying to control
Arab oil and exploit Arab nations for Cold War purposes Nasser wanted Egypt to be neutral,
did not want to join anti-Soviet alliance wanted position of non-identification with west and
east for the sake of aid (could get aid from both sides), however Nasser’s position became
more and more anti-western; was very much pro-Arab nationalist he rejected British
imperialism, Baghdad Pact and French colonization of Algeria; became very unpopular in the
west tense relationship with Israel

American Policy towards Egypt and Israel - US concerned about the intensity of Nasser’s
anti-west feelings - Eisenhower hoped to reduce tensions between Arabs and Israelis –
supported both - as an effective way to encounter and contain USSR influence (CW politics) -
tried to negotiate friendships between them – failed - Eisenhower critical of Israel’s
aggressive raids and for lack of compensation for Pal. refugees Egypt and Israel - Israel
wanted to undermine Nasser - Feb ’55 Israel attacked and destroyed the Egyptian army
headquarters in Gaza - 35 soldiers killed - Palestinian refugees in Gaza rioted and demanded
arms for defense - in Cairo riots and demonstrations demanding revenge - humiliating for
Nasser; he was worried about the effect on the Egypt image

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needs arms urgently to prevent any other attacks US promised to give arms and financial aid
for the building of Aswan High Dam (Israel getting arms from France by this time) but this
was put on hold because of pressure from Israeli lobby in Washington Egypt turned to the
Soviet block and in July large arms deal was arranged with Czechoslovakia Soviets were keen
to get allies in ME and announced arms deal in Sept ’55 (CW game) Arms deal between
Egypt and Soviets was shock to the west but UK and US still hoped to control Nasser – arms
and money for the dam Nasser still wanted to remain neutral 1956 May; - Nasser gives
diplomatic recognition to Communist China US president Eisenhower and Dulles (Secretary
of State) cancelled the promise of loans to Egypt for the dam (and UK also) Dulles about
Nasser: “an extremely dangerous fanatic” in an effort to finance the Aswan Dam and prove
that Egypt was independent he nationalized the Suez Canal Company (July 1956) he
immediately compensated the British and French shareholders and kept the Canal opened to
shipping British and France still furious and want to go to war (shipping! , economy – loss of
revenues, can close it anytime – loss of control of oil and other supplies) GB lost colony and
military bases, France fears loosing Algeria (labour, oil, minerals) – Nasser supports the move
for independence in there France held secret meeting in Israel to plot Nasser’s downfall, GB
joined in Nasser blocked the Straights of Tiran Sept ’66 France and Israel created a virtual
military alliance

America - Eisenhower cautioned GB and Fr. not to go too far; he saw no legal reasons to
attack Egypt - By Oct. secret meeting in Paris - Israel army would invade Egypt – claim they
were responding on attacks by fedayeen

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GB and Fr. would intervene to separate them, at the same time occupy Suez and remove
Nasser

Operation Musketeer (map dcr.csusb..edu/dby/1956suezcrisis.jpg) - 29th Oct ’56 – Israel

attacked, led by Ariel Sharon over Sinai - and joined paratroopers that had already got in; at
Mitla (near canal) - Egypt mobilized - Israeli aim: (1) end the blockade of the Straights of
Tiran for shipping; (2) wanted Nasser to recognizing Israel; (3) wanted to stop the raids
coming from Gaza to Israel - British: move back 10 miles either side -> Egypt would loose the
whole Sinai - Egypt refuses (that’s what British wanted) and moved more troops to Sinai -
Oct. 31 – British and French planes bombard Egyptian airfields and Port Said (N. of the canal)
- Eisenhower was furious at Anglo-French involvement and even more when Britain and
France vetoed the UN security council resolution which call on the withdraw of all 3 (Is, UK,
Fr) - Eisenhower threatened Israel – he would stop supporting them (money, arms) - afraid if
Israelis would not withdraw the soviets would gain influence – Arab world would turn again
W powers and Israel, the Soviets would cosy after them (arabs would turn their direction) -
after Egyptian forces were destroyed Nasser concentrated his forces in Alexandria and Cairo
– afraid there will be land invasions following the bombing -> result: Israel was able to
capture all of Sinai; already had Gaza, destroyed fadayeen - before Israel has taken all the
Sinai, the UN General assembly on Nov. 2 voted for immediate ceasefire and the withdrawal
of occupying forces from Egypt. - Israel rejected the resolution because they still had not the
complete control of Sinai - UK and Fr. were on way with ships; int. atmosphere very tense
(uprising in Hungary, Soviets moved into Budapest) - when Israel took Sinai completely, they
accepted the ceasefire but set conditions - Brit. and Fr. because now they lost their valid
reason to intervene - Nov 5. Anglo-French paratroopers land in Port Said and take control of
the city - French and British advance on the Suez Canal

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Egyptians were sinking ships full of concrete to block the advance of Anglo-French forces to
the S. Nov. 6 Brit and Fr accepted the ceasefire – at this point they got control of the Canal
America wouldn’t give Brit financial support, Soviets would use military forces if they won’t
stop Nasser still in power – the prestige of Fr and UK is shattered (beginning of the end of
imperialism) British didn’t get rid of Nasser neither got hold of Suez UN labelled Fr, Brit, Is as
aggressors and concentrated on evicting (kicked) them out of Egypt Egypt was given back the
control of Suez Canal wave of nationalism in Brit and Fr colonies and the push to the
independence Israel beat their Arab neighbour yet again, took Gaza and most of Sinai but
had to give them back UN: 74 to 2 demanded Israeli to withdraw refused to withdraw until
UN would step in (did March ’57) proved that Israel forces were the strongest in the region

Results: - Nasser became hero of the Arab world – stood up against UK and Fr - Canal was
reopened ’57 with US help - more anti-western feeling in the Arab states - Arabs more
willing to receive Soviet aid - Soviet union began to sell arms and supported financially the
Aswan Dam - he didn’t want to be solely tied to Soviet (wanted to be neutral) so he sought
also aid somewhere else

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Role of Britain, France, UN, USSR, USA and Israel

12/05/2010

08:46:00
*see extra notes from classmates

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Arabism and Zionism, Emergence of PLO 08:46:00

Origins
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pan-arabism = arab nationalism and socialism (after Nasser) Zionism – jewish movement
from 19th century with the desire to establish Jewish homeland both generate antagonism
and bitterness

Arabism Introduction - identified with Arab nationalism - developed as a reaction to the

Ottoman influence in the region; also because of contact with the development of European
nationalism - desire for self-determination and independence but still disagreements in the
society - Arabism allowed development of the Arab culture - Political leadership taken over
by pan-Arab ideology - tried to unite the Arabs in a union of nation states - the UAR (United
Arab republic of Egypt and Syria) showed difficulties of any kind of political union - Arab
League (1945) – advances political, economic, cultural and social programmes designed to
promote the interest of its member states Arabism before 1948 - diplomacy between Arabs
and British during WWI. and the defeat of Ottoman empire encouraged pan-Arabism and
hopes for unified Arab state - establishment of the British mandate system upset Arabs who
hoped for restructuring of the Middle East - became closely linked with Islam religion and its
history

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after WWII. no progress towards political unification unified in hostility towards the Jews
Azoury: Judaism an Arabism – two important phenomena of the same nature but opposed.

Nasser and Arab Socialism - 1948 war helped in the development of radicalism -> focal point
of hatred towards Israel, upheavals in Arab states - Ba’athsim – Arab nationalist Movement –
in 1950s more radical and hostile towards West and Israel, promoted socialism, social
progress and development of Arab unity - Nasser – social revolution – promoted social
reforms = Arab socialism - leader of pan-Arab ideological movement, tried to unite the Arab
cause - he could define his own way – nationalized basic industries, promoted social welfare,
wanted to improve the representation of poverty-stricken peasants - “Socialism, Union and
Freedom” - Syria merged with Egypt -> UAR - wanted to achieve national liberation and
economic development but couldn’t without mass support – had to split, UAR collapsed in
1961 - after 1967 war pan-Arabism declined - Nasser was maintaining a united front against
Israel to recover occupied territories Palestine Liberation Organisation (PLO) - founded in
1964 - group of Palestinians who believed that the liberation of their homeland had to come
in order for Arab community to be achieved - -> Fatah – led by Yasser Arafat - its
methodology = low-level guerilla warfare

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umbrella under which other resistance group such as Fatah could operate
Zionism Introduction - direct response to the growth of anti-Semitism - goal: establishment
of Jewish state in the ancient homeland claimed by the Jews as a gift from God - modern
national liberation movement - origins: Theofor Herzl – called for safe haven for the Jews -
declaration in the Basel - aim: to cerate for the Jewish people a home in Palestine - Chaim
Weizmann – leader of Zionist movement, first president of Israel - WWI. allowed both
nationalist groups to develop -> resentment caused each other to alienate each other -
Zionism grew more radical as its demands were not met -> formation of Haganah - more
radical Lehi – extreme position

- make notes

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How far do you agree that it was the creation of the state of Israel that fuelled the growth of
Arab nationalism in the years 1948-1973? - need to look both at the importance of state of
Israel + other factors that influenced growth of Arab nationalism I. Explain Arab nationalism
i. what is it? ii. creation of state of Israel fuelled… iii. outline the areas you will look into II.
Importance of the existence of Israel III. UN decision to create new state -> this united Arab
countries – armies invade in May 1948 IV. Defeat of Arab armies -> incr. the hatred of Israel
and united the Arab countries for next 25(?) years in their refusal to recognize Israel
(Lebanon gave protection to guerilla groups – tensions with Israeli on borders) V. Formation
of PLO (when, why – in order to liberate Palestine and destroy Israel -> this sustained Arab
nationalism) VI. Importance of ’67 (6 days war) and ’73 – these wars strengthen anti-Israel
VII. Role of Egypt and Nasser (and his use of radio in building opposition in the Arab world)
and Baghdad Pact VIII. The Suez Crisis, Egypt’s ‘victory’ over the West when Britain and
France had to withdraw IX. Foundation of UAR (separate factor in strengthening Arab
nationalism) X. the idea that much of Arab nationalism was anti-western – opposition to
west’s creation of Israel and support of Israel (eg. Suez crisis)

32

6 Day War 1967 and Yom Kippur War 08:46:00

12/05/2010

Introduction - historians disagree on who is to blame - both Egypt and Israel were engaged in
war-talk (aggressive language,…) - both faced with domestic problems - Syria and Israel had
political and territorial disagreements - Israel’s choice: diplomacy or war? Israel - since the
end of 1949 Israelis lived with threat of invasion -> surrounded by enemies - IDF were
constantly on alert, defending state from attacks - Israel was developing rapidly; Jews from
Europe, Middle-East,…were moving to Israel -> Law of return - everyone who returned
received arm training and had to learn Hebrew -> made them Israelis; many lived in Kibitzes -
receiving money from US and Germany; irrigation schemes Arabs - creation of PLO – united
in aim to destroy Israel and win back land - 1965 the Fattah carried out raids on Israel - bases
in 3 countries – Syria, Lebanon, Jordan -> tensions with Israel - Israelis retaliated swiftly and
harshly Israeli-Syrian border

33

tensions growing since 48 Israeli security -> reason given for military actions in Syrian Golan
Heights - rich in water resources and farm land conflict also over water and farm land Israelis
intentionally provoked the farmer so they end up with retaliation the conflict over water was
ongoing Eisenhower has proposed the plan for water sharing -> Arab countries didn’t
cooperate because they would be recognizing Israel 1956 construction project in Israel –
pump station which would remove water from sea of Galilee 1963 near completion but
opposed by Syria and all other Arab nations Syrian wanted to dam rivers leading to the sea
of Galilee -> Israel bombed these projects mutual artillery shelling across the borders –
volatile situation 1966 coup in Syria – government collapse; new government pro-Palestinian
permits Fattah to have bases in Syria and do attacks on Israel 1967 Israel responded to
artillery exchanges in Golan Heights – sent in tanks, then fighter planes against Syrian gunner
positions Israeli flew low over Damascus – humiliating for Syrians -> this might have started
the countdown to the war Israelis provoked 80% of the clashes on the borders

Israeli-Jordanian border - King Hussein couldn’t stop guerrilla attacks into Israel –
Palestinians had basis in Jordan - 1966 – three Israeli houses were blown up – suspected that
Fattah were responsible - Israel took revenge and blew up Jordanian village Rafat and Tel
Arbrian – 11 civilians killed - in Nov another Arab sabotage in Jerusalem – Israeli soldiers and
civilians killed

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-> revenge – Israeli forces entered the West Bank and attacked the village of Samu because
they believed the attackers came from that village destroyed 100 homes and about 15
Jordanian troops were killed, 3 civilians early 67 – more raids, more reprisals

Israeli-Egyptian border - only neighbour from whom Israel wasn’t attacked - UN troops
placed on the border after ’56 war preventing any clashes Soviet Union - looking for ‘client
state’ – an ally – in that region - view Syria as sort of an ally - Nasser critical of Syria for
allowing Soviets to have an influence - Nasser himself was indebted with Soviets - Soviets
encourage Syrians and Egyptians to create greater ties -> more influence for the Soviets - ’66
Nasser reluctantly agreed to proposals for a Syria – Egypt mutual defense treaty - Nasser
hoped that he could prevent Syrian – Israeli war -> could be disaster for both Syria and Egypt
in May 12, 1967 the Soviets informed Egypt that Israel was moving its troops to border with
Syria (C-W politics) Soviets were either lying or mistaken Nasser couldn’t remain inactive -
had treaty with Syria, dependent on Soviets for military aid, the whole Arab world is
watching him had to make definitive gesture to Syria, but he knew that the Israeli forces
were superior
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“ Nasser embarked on an exercise of brinkmanship that was to carry him over the brink” Avi
Shlain Nasser took 3 steps to warn Israel and to impress Arab public opinion 1) 15 May he
moved 100,000 Egyptian troops into the Sinai – Egyptian territory but it alarmed Israel asked
the UN commander to remove UN troops from the Egyptian soil – 2) wanted to show the
Egyptian independence 3) 22 May Nasser closed the Straits of Tiran – Israel saw this as an
act of aggression against their country

Israel’s response: - at the same time the press in the Arab states is stirring up a war fewer -
May 29, Nasser made a speech to Egyptian parliament in which he demanded that the
Palestinians would be allowed to return and that the land taken by the Israelis in ’48, ’49
should also be returned - King Hussein did not want war but half of his population were
Palestinian – demonstrations, news papers -> pushing for action - on 30 May, King Hussein
signed defense treaty with Egypt - May 31, Israeli delegation went to Washington - US: we
have no doubt that if Egypt attacks, “Israelis would whip the hell out of them”; “Israel will
not be alone unless it decides to go it alone” - -> Israelis decided to wait because they didn’t
want to repeat the Suez error - also worried about the Soviets – made it clear that if Israelis
attack, they would help the attacked country - Nasser made it clear he has no plans for war
but the Israeli PM Eshkol wanted clear idea of what would the American attitude be if
Israelis attack - “There is growing chance of American backing” if Israel acts on their own, ie.
to open the straits of Tiran - Israelis feared that there would be talks between Egypt and US
and that compromise might be reached and they would loose their chance of removing
Nasser www.sixdaywar.org

36

Monday, the 5th of June - Israel forces attack on Arab planes on the ground - within 4 hours
they have destroyed the airforce of Egypt, Syria and Jordan -> Israel had control of the skies -
Israeli hit the Egyptian forces – they couldn’t defend themselves - no plane in the Arab
countries could penetrate Israeli airspace – I. safe from attack - with Arab planes destroyed,
the Arab land forces were trapped without air protection - Israel’s overland blitzkrieg
continued largely unopposed - the US kept neutrality policy – decided that it wasn’t clear
who started the war - Americans didn’t want to know because they were so committed to
Israel - territory taken on day 1,2,3: Sinai, E. Jerusalem, West bank - gain: gain as much
territory as possible before cease fire US ship USS Liberty was bombed by Israelis since it was
monitoring information and transmit it to America. They claimed it was mistake or someone
else did it Before US were able to find out, Israel took Golan Heights

Results of the war: - Israel won – now the dominant power in ME - Arabs lost 15,000
soldiers, Israeli only few thousand - Why? Air force, most advanced US electronic equipment,
could intercept Arab communications, highly skilled, well trained, fighting for
survival/existence - Arabs had larger armies but their air force was destroyed
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Arabs had soviet missiles, Israeli had French tanks and planes – both had good weaponry
Israel now occupied the territories of West Bank, Gaza strip, Sinai and Golan Heights and
reunited the city of Jerusalem the size of Israel has tripled humiliation for Arabs, especially
Egypt, Nasser’s leadership was damaged humiliation of 1967 led to more unrest in Arab
countries leaders were criticised, there was a rise in fundamental Palestinian and Islamic
nationalism massive Palestinian refugees / exodus Aug/Sep 67 Arab conference in Khartoum
– no peace for Israel, no recognition, no negotiation (3 nos (ne)) -> made it difficult to find
peace settlement the role of peace negotiator – UN Nov 67 – the UN passed resolution 242 –
withdraw of Israeli armed forces from the (would mean all of them) territories occupied;
respect for right of every state in the area; “to live in peace within secure and recognised
boundaries free from the threat or acts of force” -> ‘Land for peace’ this resolutions
supported Arabs on issue of land and Israelis on issue of peace and security Israel wasn’t in
any hurry to get a peace settlement – it was secured the resolution had initially no effect but
it was to be the main ME political document for several decade – basis for negotiation
Israelis had to military-wise occupy the territory because they couldn’t annex it otherwise
they would have to accept the Muslims (democracy, votes,…) Palestinians were outraged
because the resolution didn’t state anything about the fate of its population PLO emerged
under Yasser Arafat – brings the community and infrastructure the Palestinians now need ->
political front

38

The War of Attrition 1967 – 1970 - resolution 242 – no peace - Egypt and Israeli forces were
on E of West Bank - each side shelling the other; targeting installations, military places - each
side lost many men and weapons - 1969 – the Nixon’s US secretary of state Rogers –
proposal (basically to fulfil the resolution) – to move to pre-1967 borders and guarantee of
peace from Egypt and Jordan - Israel rejects; Jordan and Egypt in favour -> rejected - Israel’s
continuous bombing deepened into Egypt - during this period 1,500,000 Egyptians left their
homes - Egyptians are asked for soviet help - military advisors from Soviet Union brought
SAM missiles and some of their trained pilots - the possibility of war increased as Egypt and
Israel increased their arms - Nixon gave the PM G. Meir assurance of ‘special relationship’ =
they will back them - super power rivalry fuelled the middle east instability Jordan’s
population was 40% Palestinian showdown 1970 – PFLP (branch of Fattah) hijacked 4 planes
which they brought to Amman 39

Martial laws declared and civil war against Palestinians began troops killed many people in
the refugee camps -> Black September PLO leadership and 4,000 Palestinians moved to
Lebanon

Sadat seeks peace - the cost is crippling Egypt - threat to his authority - declared that ‘1971 is
to be the year of decision’ either by diplomacy or war - in Feb 1971 he offered to sign a
peace agreement with Israel and reopen the Suez canal if Israel withdrew their forces back
from the canal - Israel no answer, US no comment - Nixon becomes very pro-Israeli, coming
near the presidential elections - began a huge transfer of technology to Israel in Nov ’71;
pledged war planes - Sadat facing student riots ’72; mocked by Egyptian and Israeli public
Tensions increase - General Arail Sharon - 24 refugee camps – curfews - searched houses,
arrested men, deported thousands to detention camps in Sinai - July ’71 – 13,000 deported
to Sinai - drove farmers and Bedouins from North/East Sinai – built Jewish settlements there
Yamik - shelling continues with Lebanon - Israeli attack on Syria – village Deir 1972 – Sadat
expelled all Soviet advisors – popular movement between both Jews and Arabs because
Soviet interference was too high and Kissinger had talks with Brezhnev in Moscow about
keeping status quo in ME – angered Arabs 1973 Feb – summit in Washington in which Meir
made clear that she won’t return Sinai Sadat received money from Saudi Arabia and
purchased arms from Soviets both Sadat and Assad became close allies

40

Yom Kippur War (Oct 1973) Egypt: - Disadv: Egypt vulnerable to Israeli superior aircraft - had
to cross canal with Israelis on the other side - stoned sand with fortresses – ‘Bar Lev’ - Adv:
Air defence system – protect within 10 miles - high pressure water hoses to cross the hills to
break through Bar Lev - Israelis had very few troops on Bar Lev - Yom Kippur holiday - Israelis
believed they’re superior – surprise! on 6th Oct Egypt and Syria attacked many Isr. soldiers
on leave – surprised 300 isr. tanks destroyed and took part of Sinai 500 Syrian tanks moved
to Golan Heights it took 2-3 days for isr. to fully mobilise and turn the tide initial success
stopped by 12 Oct Israeli pushed Syrians back and by 13 Oct Israeli crossed the Suez Canal
and cut of Egyptian 3rd army US sent weapons to Israel while Soviets supplied Syria and
Egypt when Israelis crossed Suez both US and USSR wanted them to stop after Oct 14 when
Israeli moved over Suez Arab countries were furious about US supply of money to Israeli,
OPEC countries imposed oil embargo on US and reduced the production of oil -> oil crises
around the world

41

the Soviets advised Egypt to accept cease fire while they still had part of Sinai and Nixon
instructed Kissinger to discuss plan for ME with Brezhnev US worried about the arab oil
embargo and the threat of armed intervention by Soviets American forces on nuclear alert at
a certain time both superpowers were keen to avoid direct confrontation the US and USSR
met and insisted on a cease fire – US supported this fighting ended on Oct 24 within few
days the UN sent troops to Egypt to keep peace between Egypt and Israeli Resolution 338 –
called for end of fighting and negotiation Military victory for Israel but with large losses
Sadat became a hero

Consequences: - self-confidence of both sides increased – shuttle diplomacy -> US talks with
both sides - Israelis, Syrians, Jordanians, Egyptians met together and negotiated - Kissinger
got all sides to agree to send UN forces to Golan Heights to separate Syrian/Israeli - internal
situation in Israel – war changed political scene - Goldan Meir abdicated, replaced by Rabin -
1973 left wing government negotiated with Arab nations – disliked - 1977 election won by
Likud – Begin - Hussein starts to loose power, negotiations with Palestinians with Arafat. -
PLO takes over the representation of Palestinians

42

Camp David and the Egyptian-Israel Peace agreement

Introduction: txtb p. 132 - 133

43

1974: PLO recognised as sole representative of Palestine Zionism described as “a form of

racism…” 1976 civil war in Lebanon – conflict between different fractions in Lebanon – civil
war ’76 Carter becomes US president, Cyrus Vance – secretary of State ’77 the Likud party in
Israel – leader Begin • determined to hold on to West Bank and Gaza and crush PLO – seen
as setback for peace negotiations Sadat made offers of talks with Israel ‘77 • due to: poor
economic conditions in Egypt • financial difficulties because of Yom Kippur • reduction of
food subsidies -> hit the poor -> riots Jan ‘77 Palestinian cause and settlement were
important to Carter administration • criticised by Jews in US • Carter opposed to Begin’s
intention to hold on to W. Bank, Gaza, Sinai and to put the Jewish settlements in them •
settlements are an “obstacle to peace” accord. to Carter and are illegal accord to Haag
convention Nov. 19, 1977 Sadat addressed Knesset and proposed bi-lateral peace agreement
between Egypt and Israel • permanent peace and recognition to Israel in return for Israel’s
withdraw from all Arab territory captured in ‘67 • also included Palestinian issue of
Homeland • many were sceptical Begin made a counterproposal

44

partial withdraw from Sinai in exchange with peace treaty with Egypt and negotiations
concerning limited autonomy for W. Bank and Gaza • Sadat not pleased with partial
withdrawal and soon after Begin starts construction of new settlements Carter facilitated a
meeting of the 2 in Camp David to find a solution • Begin agreed to pull out of Sinai • final
agreement: o Framework for the conclusion of a peace treaty – a peace treaty between
Israel and Egypt with Israel withdraws from Sinai within 3 years; Egypt would guarantee free
passage through Suez and gulf of Aquaba o Framework for peace in M-E – the issue of W.
Bank and Gaza were dealth with but very vaguely. The status of the regions would be
negotiated on the basis of UN resolution 242; an autonomous self-governing authority in the
West Bank and Gaza strip – interpretations differ • the agreement resulted in US subsidising
annually Egyptian and Israeli governments – must buy US material with these

•
Consequences of Camp David - hostility towards Egypt and Sadat - Sadat assassinated - Egypt
removed from Arab league - Begin continued to build settlements - Israel formally annexed
Golan Heights and went to war with Lebanon