CHAPTER 3 CELL STRUCTURE AND TAXONOMY

Introduction to Microorganisms

A. Definitions
1. Cell – fundamental living unit of any organism
- Cells are classified as..
Procaryotes
• Do not have complex system of membranes and organelles
• Bacteria and Archaea
Eucaryotes
• More complex cells, containing true nucleus and many membrane
bound organelles.
• Algae, Protozoa, fungi, plants, animals, and humans

2. Metabolism – refers to all the chemical reactions that occur within a cell
Importance of metabolism – growth, reproduction, and irritability
3. Mutation – accidental changes in genetical material

B. EUCARYOTES

- from a Greek word meaning “true nucleus”

- DNA is enclosed by a nuclear membrane
- Eucaryotic cells reproduce either by mitosis or meiosis

MITOSIS
- Refers to nuclear division – the equal division of one nucleus into two
genetically identical nuclei
- Chromosomes are copied and allocated equally two daughter cells
- The genosomes of the off spring are identical to the parent’s genome
- Either haploid or diploid cells can divide by mitosis

MEIOSIS
 - Two parents give rise to offspring that have unique combinations of genes
inherited from both parents
- Only diploid cells can undergo meiosis.
- Diploid cells are changed into haploid cells
-Ex: Human diploid cells – 46 chromosomes
Human haploid cells – 23 chromosomes

Eucaryotic Cell Structure

A. Cell Membrane - is like a “skin” around the cell, separating the contents of
the cell from the outside world
- regulates the passage of nutrients, waste products, and
secretions into and out of the cell – selective permeability.
(only certain substances may enter and leave the cell)
B. Nucleus - “Command center” of the cell because it unifies, controls,
and integrates the functions of the entire cell.
- Three components: Nucleoplasms, Chromosomes, Nuclear
membrane
a. Nucleoplasm – a type of protoplasm that is the
gelatinous matrix or base material of the nucleus
b. Chromosomes – are embedded or suspended
in the nucleoplasm
c. Nuclear membrane – the “skin” around the
nucleus; it contains holes (nuclear pores) through which large
molecules can enter the nucleus.
C. Nucleolus - where rRNA molecules are manufactured. The rRNA
molecules then become part of the structure of ribosomes.
D. Cytoplasm - It is where most of the cell’s metabolic reactions occur.
- where we can find insoluble storage granules and
cytoplasmic organelles (ER, ribosomes, golgi complex,
mitochondria, centrioles, etc.)
E. Endoplasmic - is a highly convulated system of membranes that are
Reticulum interconnected and arranged to form a transport network of
tubules and flattened sacs within the cytoplasm.
F. Ribosomes - consist mainly of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and protein
- plays an important role in the synthesis (manufacture) of
essential proteins.
- Two subunits: 60S subunit & 40S subunit. – produced in
the nucleus
-The subunits are then transported to the cytoplasm where
they remain separate until such time as they join together
with a messenger RNA (mRNA) molecule to initiate protein
synthesis. When united, the 60S and 40S form an 80S
ribosome.
G. Golgi Complex - connects or communicate with ER
- it completes the transformation of newly synthesized
CHONs into mature functional ones and packages them into
vesicles for storage within the cell or export outside the cell.
- referred to as “packaging plants”.
H. Lysosomes - small vesicle that originate at the GC. They contain
 lysozyme that breakdown foreign material taken into the
cell by phagocytosis.
- Lysozyme also aid in breaking down worn out parts of the
cell and may destroy the entire cell by autolysis.
I. Peroxisomes - it is where hydrogen peroxide is both generated and broken
down.
- it contains the enzyme catalase which catalyzes the
breakdown of H2O2 into H2O and O2.
J. Mitochondria - “power plants” ; “power houses” or “energy
factories”
- it is where most of the ATP molecules are formed by cellular
respiration.
- ATP- Adenosine Triphosphate (energy necessary for cellular
function)
K. Plastids - energy- producing organelle in plant cells.
- sites of photosynthesis- conversion of light energy into
chemical energy.
L. Cytoskeleton - Three types of cytoskeletal fibers: microtubules,
microfilaments, intermediate filaments.
- serve to strengthen, support, and stiffen the cell and give
the cell its shape.
- Microtubules and microfilaments are essential for cell
division, contraction, motility, and the movement of
chromosomes within the cell.
- Microtubules are composed of spherical protein subunits
called tubulins.
M. Cell Wall - external structure that provides rigidity, shape, and
protection.
- simpler in structure in eukaryotic cells and may contain
cellulose, pectin, lignin, chitin, and some mineral salts.
- cell walls of algae and plants – contain a polysaccharide,
cellulose.
- cell walls of fungi – contain a polysaccharide, chitin.
N. Flagella & Cilia a. Flagella – responsible for motility
b. Cilia – are also organelles of locomotion
c. Eukaryotic flagella and cilia are structurally more complex
than bacterial flagella.

C. PROCARYOTES
 - from a Greek word meaning “prenucleus”
- are about 10 times smaller than Eukaryotes
- possess no membranes other than the cell membrane that encloses the
cytoplasm.
- reproduces via Binary Fission.

BINARY FISSION
- the parent cell (one cell) in half to become two daughter cells. DNA
replication (duplication of chromosomes) must occur prior to the actual
splitting of the parent cell so that each daughter cell will possess the same
genetic information as the parent cell.

Procaryotic Cell Membrane

A. Cell Membrane - encloses the cytoplasm

- consists of proteins and phospholipids.
- it controls which substances may enter or leave the cell.
B. Chromosome - consists of a single, long, supercoiled, circular DNA
molecule which serves as the control center of the bacterial
cell.
- capable of duplicating itself, guiding cell division, and
directing cellular activities.
C. Plasmids - extrachromosomal DNA
- small, circular molecules of double-stranded DNA that are
not part of the chromosome.
- it may contain from fewer than 10 to several hundreds of
genes.
D. Cytoplasm - consist of water, enzymes, dissolved oxygen, waste
products, essential nutrients, CHONs, CHO, and lipids.
 - complex mixture of materials required by the cell for its
metabolic functions.
E. Cytoplasmic a. Ribosomes – sites of CHON synthesis; 7OS
Particles b. Cytoplasmic Granules – consist of starch, lipids, sulfur,
iron, & other stored substances.
F. Bacterial Cell - it defines the shape of bacterial cells
Wall - it provides rigidity, strength, and protection.
- main constituent: Peptidoglycan
- Cell walls of bacteria:
“Gram-Positive bacteria” – have thick layer of
peptidoglycan combined with teichoic acid and lipoteichoic
acid molecules
“Gram-Negative bacteria” have thinner layer of
peptidoglycan, but this layer is covered with a complex layer
of lipid macromolecules

- Genus Mycoplasma – do not have cell walls

G. Glycocalyx - a slimy, gelatinous material produced by the cell
(slime layer & membrane and secreted outside of the cell wall
capsules) a. Slime Layer- is not highly organized and is not firmly
attached to the cell wall
- enable certain bacteria to glide or slide
along solid surfaces.
- ex: Pseudomonas sp. – produce a slime
layer that plays a role in the disease that it cause.
B. Capsule – is highly organized and firmly attached to the
cell wall.
 - consist of polysaccharides, which may be
combined with lipids and proteins, depending on the
bacterial species.
- ex: H. influenza, K. pneumonia, N.
meningitides, S. pneumonia
- capsules serve an antiphagocytic function.
- can be detected using a negative stain
whereby the bacterial cell and background become stained.
- immunologic test: Capsular swelling
( Quellung Reaction)
H. Flagella - are thread-like protein (flagellin) appendages that enable
bacteria to move (motile)
- the number and arrangement of flagella can be used for
classification and identification purposes.
- ex: Salmonella sp.

Flagellar Arrangement
1. Monotrichous – one flagellum
2. Amphitrichous – one or more flagella at each end
3. Lophotrichous – a tuft of flagella at one end
4. Peritrichous – flagella all over the surface

Test for motility:

a. Wet mount and Hanging drop method – differentiates true
motility from Brownian movement
b. growth in a semi-solid medium
Motile- growth of bacteria is away from the inoculation
line
Non- Motile – growth of bacteria is confined along the
inoculation line.
I. Pili (Fimbriae) - are hair-like structures, most often observed on Gram (-)
bacteria.
 - composed of protein called pilin
- much thinner than flagella, have a rigid structure and are
not associated with motility.
- two types of Pili:
a. Ordinary Pili – enables bacteria to adhere or attach to
host cells (tissues within the human body) – can cause
urethritis and cystitis
E. coli fimbriae b. Sex pili – enables transfer of genetic material from one
bacterial cell to another – (a process known Conjugation).
J. Spores - Sporulation- process of spore formation
(Endospores) - resistant to heat, cold, drying and most chemicals
- when dried spore lands on a moist, nutrient-rich surface, it
germinates, and a new vegetative bacterial cell emerges.
- ex: Bacillus sp., Clostridium sp.
- location of spores within the cell:
a. Central – spore is produced at the center of cell
b. Terminal – spore is produced at the very end of cell
c. Subterminal spore is produced elsewhere in the cell

Bacillus
thuringiensis with
terminal endospore.
D. Comparison Between Eucaryotic and Procaryotic Cells

EUKARYOTIC CELLS

PLANT TYPE ANIMAL TYPE PROKARYOTIC CELLS

Biologic All plants, All animals All bacteria

distribution fungi, and and protozoa
algae

Nuclear Present Present Absent

membrane

Membranous Present Present Generally absent except for mesosomes

structures and photosynthetic membranes
other than
cell
membrane

Microtubules Present Present Absent

Cytoplasmic 80S 80S 70S

ribosomes
(density)

Chromosom Composed of Composed of Composed of DNA alone

es DNA and DNA and
proteins proteins

Flagella or When present, When present, When present, flagella have a simple
cilia have a have a twisted protein structure; prokaryotic
complex complex cells do not have cilia
structure structure

Cell Wall When present, Absent Of complex chemical constitution,

of simple containing peptidoglycan
chemical
constitution;
usually
contains
cellulose

Photosynthe Present Absent Present in cyanobacteria and some other

sis bacteria

E. Prokaryotic Cell Reproduction

  Prokaryotic cells reproduce by binary fission.

 One cell (parent cell) splits into half to become two daughter cells.

 Before a prokaryotic cell can divide into half, its chromosomes must be
duplicated.

 Generation time- varies from one bacterial species to another (ex. E. coli,
20 mins.)

F. Eukaryotic Cell Reproduction

 Eukaryotic cell reproduce in a process called mitosis.

 Mitosis the type of division that gives rise to daughter cells for the purpose
of tissue growth, regeneration or asexual (vegetative) reproduction.

G. Taxonomy

o Taxonomy is the science of classification of living organism.

o Consists of 3 but interrelated areas:

o Classification- arrangement of organisms into taxonomic groups

(taxa).

o Nomenclature- assignment of names

o Identification- process of determining whether an isolate belongs to

a taxa.

H. Microbial Classification
 o Carolus Linnaeus- established the binomial nomenclature

o genus + specific epithet

o Genus- capitalize the first letter

o Specific epithet- not capitalized

o “sp.”- single specie, “spp.”- more than one specie

I. Taxonomic Hierarchies

• Species- group of related organism/strains

• Genus- collection of related species

• Family- collection of similar genera

• Order- collection of similar families

• Class- collection of similar orders

• Phylum/Division- collection of similar classes

• Kingdom- collection of similar phyla/divisions

• Domain- collection of similar kingdoms

J. Examples of Bacteria Named after the Diseases That They Cause

BACTERIA DISEASE

Bacillus anthracis Anthrax

Chlamydophila pneumonia Pneumonia

Chlamydophila psittaci Psittacosis (“parrot fever”)

Chlamydia trachomatis Trachoma

Clostridium tetani Tetanus

Clostridium botulinum Botulism

Corynebacterium diphtheriae Diphtheria

Francisella tularensis Tularemia (“rabbit fever”)

Klebsiella pneumoniae Pneumonia

Mycobacterium leprae Leprosy

Mycobacterium tuberculosis Tuberculosis

Mycoplasma pneumoniae Pneumonia

Neisseria gonorrheae Gonorrhea

Neisseria meningitides Meningitis

Streptococcus pneumoniae Pneumonia

Vibrio cholera Cholera

K. The 5 Kingdom Classifications

 Founded in 1969 by Robert H. Whittaker.

 Bacteria and archaeans are in the Kingdom Prokaryotes (or Monera)

 Algae and Protozoa are in the Kingdom Protista (organisms in this kingdom
are reffered to as protists)

 Fungi are in the Kingdom Fungi

 Plants are in the Kingdom Plantae

 Animals are in the Kingdom Animalia

  Viruses are not included in the Five-Kingdom System of Classification
because they are acellular

The Five-Kingdom Classification Scheme

Modern Classification

 In 1978, Carl R. Woese proposed elevating the three cell types to a level
above kingdom, called DOMAIN

 Cells are classified into three types:

 ARCHAEBACTERIA

 EUBACTERIA

 EUKARYA
 The Three-Domain Classification Scheme

Reference: Burton, G. (2007). Burton's Microbiology for the Health Sciences (8th
ed.). Baltimore: Lippincot Williams & Wilkins.