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Vedas
Part of a series on
Hindu scriptures
Vedas
Rigveda · Yajurveda · Samaveda · Atharvaveda
Divisions
Samhita · Brahmana · Aranyaka · Upanishad
Upavedas
Ayurveda · Dhanurveda
Gāndharvaveda · Sthapatyaveda
Vedangas
Shiksha · Chandas · Vyakarana
Nirukta · Kalpa · Jyotisha
Upanishads
Rig vedic
Aitareya
Yajur vedic
Brihadaranyaka · Isha
Taittiriya · Katha
Shvetashvatara
Sama vedic
Chandogya · Kena
Atharva vedic
Mundaka · Mandukya · Prashna
Puranas
Brahma puranas
Brahma · Brahmānda
Brahmavaivarta
Markandeya · Bhavishya
Vishnu puranas
Vishnu · Bhagavata
Naradeya · Garuda · Padma
Shiva puranas
Shiva · Linga
Skanda · Agni · Vayu
Itihasas
Ramayana · Mahabharata
Other scriptures
Bhagavad Gita · Manu Smriti
Artha Shastra · Agama
Tantra · Pancharatra
Sūtra · Stotra · Dharmashastra · Divya Prabandha · Tevaram ·
Ramacharitamanas ·
Yoga Vasistha
Vedas 2
Classification of scriptures
Śruti · Smriti
The Vedas (Sanskrit वेद véda, "knowledge") are a large body of texts originating in ancient India. Composed in
Vedic Sanskrit, the texts constitute the oldest layer of Sanskrit literature and the oldest scriptures of Hinduism.[1]
The class of "Vedic texts" is aggregated around the four canonical Saṃhitās or Vedas proper (turīya), of which
three (traya) are related to the performance of yajna (sacrifice) in historical (Iron Age) Vedic religion:
1. The Rigveda, containing hymns to be recited by the hotṛ;
2. The Yajurveda, containing formulas to be recited by the adhvaryu or officiating priest;
3. The Samaveda, containing formulas to be sung by the udgātṛ.
The fourth is the Atharvaveda, a collection of spells and incantations, apotropaic charms and speculative hymns.[2]
According to Hindu tradition, the Vedas are apauruṣeya "not of human agency",[3] are supposed to have been
directly revealed, and thus are called śruti ("what is heard").[4] [5] The four Saṃhitās are metrical (with the exception
of prose commentary interspersed in the Black Yajurveda). The term saṃhitā literally means "composition,
compilation". The individual verses contained in these compilations are known as mantras. Some selected Vedic
mantras are still recited at prayers, religious functions and other auspicious occasions in contemporary Hinduism.
The various Indian philosophies and sects have taken differing positions on the Vedas. Schools of Indian philosophy
which cite the Vedas as their scriptural authority are classified as "orthodox" (āstika). Other traditions, notably
Buddhism and Jainism, which did not regard the Vedas as authorities are referred to by traditional Hindu texts as
"heterodox" or "non-orthodox" (nāstika) schools.[6] [7] In addition to Buddhism and Jainism, Sikhism[8] [9] and
Brahmoism[10] many non-brahmin Hindus in South India [11] do not accept the authority of the Vedas. Even certain
South Indian brahmin communities such as Iyengars consider the Tamil Divya Prabandham or writing of the Alvar
saints as equivalent to the Vedas [12] . In most Iyengar temples in South India the Divya Prabandham is recited daily
instead of the Vedic Hymns.
English discourse
The Vedas first entered English discourse through the translations of Müller (1823–1900) and he opines (Müller &
Stone, 2002: p. 44) as it was then understood as to their importance for English-speaking peoples by identifying that
English is an Indo-European language and the oldest of the Indo-Iranian language branch of the Indo-European
language family of which Modern English is a related is Vedic Sanskrit:
"As the language of the Veda, the Sanskrit, is the most ancient type of the English of the present day
(Sanskrit and English are but varieties of one and the same language), so its thoughts and feelings
contain in reality the first roots and germs of that intellectual growth which by an unbroken chain
connects our own generation with the ancestors of the Aryan race--with those very people who at the
rising and setting of the sun listened with trembling hearts to the songs of the Veda, that told them of
bright powers above, and of a life to come after the sun of their own lives had set in the clouds of the
evening. Those men were the true ancestors of our race; and the Veda is the oldest book we have in
which to study the first beginnings of our language, and of all that is embodied in language. We are by
nature Aryan, Indo-European, not Semitic: our spiritual kith and kin are to be found in India, Persia,
Greece, Italy, Germany; not in Mesopotamia, Egypt, or Palestine. This is a fact that ought to be clearly
perceived, and constantly kept in view, in order to understand the importance which the Veda has for us,
after a lapse of more than three thousand years, and after ever so many changes in our language,
thought, and religion."[17]
Chronology
The Vedas are among the oldest sacred texts. The Samhitas date to roughly 1500–1000 BCE, and the
"circum-Vedic" texts, as well as the redaction of the Samhitas, date to c. 1000-500 BCE, resulting in a Vedic period,
spanning the mid 2nd to mid 1st millennium BCE, spanning the Late Bronze Age and the Iron Age. Gavin Flood[18]
sums up mainstream estimates, according to which the Rigveda was compiled from as early as 1500 BCE over a
period of several centuries. The Vedic period reaches its peak only after the composition of the mantra texts, with the
establishment of the various shakhas all over Northern India which annotated the mantra samhitas with Brahmana
discussions of their meaning, and reaches its end in the age of Buddha and Panini and the rise of the Mahajanapadas
(archaeologically, Northern Black Polished Ware). Michael Witzel gives a time span of c. 1500 BCE to c. 500-400
BCE. Witzel makes special reference to the Near Eastern Mitanni material of the 14th c. BCE the only epigraphic
record of Indo-Aryan contemporary to the Rigvedic period. He gives 150 BCE (Patañjali) as a terminus ante quem
for all Vedic Sanskrit literature, and 1200 BCE (the early Iron Age) as terminus post quem for the Atharvaveda.[19]
The general accepted historical chronology of the Vedas ranks the Rig Veda as the first, followed by the Yajur Veda,
Sama Veda and finally the Atharva Veda.
Transmission of texts in the Vedic period was by oral tradition alone, preserved with precision with the help of
elaborate mnemonic techniques. A literary tradition set in only in post-Vedic times, after the rise of Buddhism in the
Maurya period, perhaps earliest in the Kanva recension of the Yajurveda about the 1st century BCE; however oral
tradition predominated until c. 1000 CE.[20] Due to the ephemeral nature of the manuscript material (birch bark or
palm leaves), surviving manuscripts rarely surpass an age of a few hundred years.[21] The Benares Sanskrit
University has a Rigveda manuscript of the mid-14th century; however, there are a number of older Veda
manuscripts in Nepal belonging to the Vajasaneyi tradition that are dated from the 11th century onwards.
Vedas 4
Shruti literature
The texts considered "Vedic" in the sense of "corollaries of the Vedas" is less clearly defined, and may include
numerous post-Vedic texts such as Upanishads or Sutra literature. These texts are by many Hindu sects considered to
be shruti (Sanskrit: śruti; "the heard"), divinely revealed like the Vedas themselves. Texts not considered to be shruti
are known as smriti (Sanskrit: smṛti; "the remembered"), of human origin. This indigenous system of categorization
was adopted by Max Müller and, while it is subject to some debate, it is still widely used. As Axel Michaels
explains:
These classifications are often not tenable for linguistic and formal reasons: There is not only one
collection at any one time, but rather several handed down in separate Vedic schools; Upanişads ... are
sometimes not to be distinguished from Āraṇyakas...; Brāhmaṇas contain older strata of language
attributed to the Saṃhitās; there are various dialects and locally prominent traditions of the Vedic
schools. Nevertheless, it is advisable to stick to the division adopted by Max Müller because it follows
the Indian tradition, conveys the historical sequence fairly accurately, and underlies the current editions,
translations, and monographs on Vedic literature."[24]
The Upanishads are largely philosophical works in dialog form. They discuss questions of nature philosophy and the
fate of the soul, and contain some mystic and spiritual interpretations of the Vedas. For long, they have been
regarded as their putative end and essence, and are thus known as Vedānta ("the end of the Vedas"). Taken together,
they are the basis of the Vedanta school.
Thus, the Mantras are properly of three Rigveda (padapatha) manuscript in Devanagari, early 19th century
Rigveda
The Rigveda Samhita is the oldest extant Indic text.[33] It is a collection of 1,028 Vedic Sanskrit hymns and 10,600
verses in all, organized into ten books (Sanskrit: mandalas).[34] The hymns are dedicated to Rigvedic deities.[35]
The books were composed by poets from different priestly groups over a period of several centuries, commonly
dated to the period of roughly the second half of the 2nd millennium BCE (the early Vedic period) in the Punjab
(Sapta Sindhu) region of the Indian subcontinent.[36]
There are strong linguistic and cultural similarities between the Rigveda and the early Iranian Avesta, deriving from
the Proto-Indo-Iranian times, often associated with the Andronovo culture; the earliest horse-drawn chariots were
found at Andronovo sites in the Sintashta-Petrovka cultural area near the Ural Mountains and date to ca. 2000
BCE.[37]
Yajurveda
The Yajurveda Samhita consists of archaic prose mantras and also in part of verses borrowed and adapted from the
Rigveda. Its purpose was practical, in that each mantra must accompany an action in sacrifice but, unlike the
Samaveda, it was compiled to apply to all sacrificial rites, not merely the Somayajna. There are two major groups of
recensions of this Veda, known as the "Black" (Krishna) and "White" (Shukla) Yajurveda (Krishna and Shukla
Yajurveda respectively). While White Yajurveda separates the Samhita from its Brahmana (the Shatapatha
Brahmana), the e Black Yajurveda intersperses the Samhita with Brahmana commentary. Of the Black Yajurveda
four major recensions survive (Maitrayani, Katha, Kapisthala-Katha, Taittiriya).
Samaveda
The Samaveda Samhita (from sāman, the term for a melody applied to metrical hymn or song of praise[38] ) consists
of 1549 stanzas, taken almost entirely (except for 78 stanzas) from the Rigveda.[24] Like the Rigvedic stanzas in the
Yajurveda, the Samans have been changed and adapted for use in singing. Some of the Rigvedic verses are repeated
more than once. Including repetitions, there are a total of 1875 verses numbered in the Samaveda recension
translated by Griffith.[39] Two major recensions remain today, the Kauthuma/Ranayaniya and the Jaiminiya. Its
purpose was liturgical, as the repertoire of the udgātṛ or "singer" priests who took part in the sacrifice.
Atharvaveda
The Artharvaveda Samhita is the text 'belonging to the Atharvan and Angirasa poets. It has 760 hymns, and about
160 of the hymns are in common with the Rigveda.[40] Most of the verses are metrical, but some sections are in
prose.[40] It was compiled around 900 BCE, although some of its material may go back to the time of the
Rigveda,[41] and some parts of the Atharva-Veda are older than the Rig-Veda[40] though not in linguistic form.
The Atharvanaveda is preserved in two recensions, the Paippalāda and Śaunaka.[40] According to Apte it had nine
schools (shakhas).[42] The Paippalada text, which exists in a Kashmir and an Orissa version, is longer than the
Saunaka one; it is only partially printed in its two versions and remains largely untranslated.
Unlike the other three Vedas, the Atharvanaveda has less connection with sacrifice.[43] [44] Its first part consists
chiefly of spells and incantations, concerned with protection against demons and disaster, spells for the healing of
diseases, for long life and for various desires or aims in life.[40] [45]
The second part of the text contains speculative and philosophical hymns.[46]
The Atharvaveda is a comparatively late extension of the "Three Vedas" connected to priestly sacrifice to a canon of
"Four Vedas". This may be connected to an extension of the sacrificial rite from involving three types of priest to the
inclusion of the Brahman overseeing the ritual.[47]
Vedas 8
Brahmanas
The mystical notions surrounding the concept of the one "Veda" that would flower in Vedantic philosophy have their
roots already in Brahmana literature, for example in the Shatapatha Brahmana. The Vedas are identified with
Brahman, the universal principle (ŚBM 10.1.1.8, 10.2.4.6). Vāc "speech" is called the "mother of the Vedas" (ŚBM
6.5.3.4, 10.5.5.1). The knowledge of the Vedas is endless, compared to them, human knowledge is like mere
handfuls of dirt (TB 3.10.11.3-5). The universe itself was originally encapsulated in the three Vedas (ŚBM 10.4.2.22
has Prajapati reflecting that "truly, all beings are in the triple Veda").
Vedanta
While contemporary traditions continued to maintain Vedic ritualism (Śrauta, Mimamsa), Vedanta renounced all
ritualism and radically re-interpreted the notion of "Veda" in purely philosophical terms. The association of the three
Vedas with the bhūr bhuvaḥ svaḥ mantra is found in the Aitareya Aranyaka: "Bhūḥ is the Rigveda, bhuvaḥ is the
Yajurveda, svaḥ is the Samaveda" (1.3.2). The Upanishads reduce the "essence of the Vedas" further, to the syllable
Aum (ॐ). Thus, the Katha Upanishad has:
"The goal, which all Vedas declare, which all austerities aim at, and which humans desire when they live a life
of continence, I will tell you briefly it is Aum" (1.2.15)
In post-Vedic literature
Vedanga
Six technical subjects related to the Vedas are traditionally known as vedāṅga "limbs of the Veda". V. S. Apte
defines this group of works as:
"N. of a certain class of works regarded as auxiliary to the Vedas and designed to aid in the correct
pronunciation and interpretation of the text and the right employment of the Mantras in ceremonials."[48]
These subjects are treated in Sūtra literature dating from the end of the Vedic period to Mauryan times, seeing the
transition from late Vedic Sanskrit to Classical Sanskrit.
The six subjects of Vedanga are:
• Phonetics (Śikṣā)
• Ritual (Kalpa)
• Grammar (Vyākaraṇa)
• Etymology (Nirukta)
• Meter (Chandas)
• Astronomy (Jyotiṣa)
Parisista
Pariśiṣṭa "supplement, appendix" is the term applied to various ancillary works of Vedic literature, dealing mainly
with details of ritual and elaborations of the texts logically and chronologically prior to them: the Samhitas,
Brahmanas, Aranyakas and Sutras. Naturally classified with the Veda to which each pertains, Parisista works exist
for each of the four Vedas. However, only the literature associated with the Atharvaveda is extensive.
• The Āśvalāyana Gṛhya Pariśiṣṭa is a very late text associated with the Rigveda canon.
• The Gobhila Gṛhya Pariśiṣṭa is a short metrical text of two chapters, with 113 and 95 verses respectively.
• The Kātiya Pariśiṣṭas, ascribed to Kātyāyana, consist of 18 works enumerated self-referentially in the fifth of the
series (the Caraṇavyūha)
Vedas 9
• The Kṛṣṇa Yajurveda has 3 parisistas The Āpastamba Hautra Pariśiṣṭa, which is also found as the second
praśna of the Satyasāḍha Śrauta Sūtra', the Vārāha Śrauta Sūtra Pariśiṣṭa and the Kātyāyana Śrauta Sūtra
Pariśiṣṭa.
• For the Atharvaveda, there are 79 works, collected as 72 distinctly named parisistas.[49]
Puranas
A traditional view given in the Vishnu Purana (likely dating to the Gupta period[50] ) attributes the current
arrangement of four Vedas to the mythical sage Vedavyasa.[51] . Puranic tradition also postulates a single original
Veda that, in varying accounts, was divided into three or four parts. According to the Vishnu Purana (3.2.18, 3.3.4
etc.) the original Veda was divided into four parts, and further fragmented into numerous shakhas, by Lord Vishnu in
the form of Vyasa, in the Dvapara Yuga; the Vayu Purana (section 60) recounts a similar division by Vyasa, at the
urging of Brahma. The Bhagavata Purana (12.6.37) traces the origin of the primeval Veda to the syllable aum, and
says that it was divided into four at the start of Dvapara Yuga, because men had declined in age, virtue and
understanding. In a differing account Bhagavata Purana (9.14.43) attributes the division of the primeval veda (aum)
into three parts to the monarch Pururavas at the beginning of Treta Yuga. The Mahabharata (santiparva 13,088) also
mentions the division of the Veda into three in Treta Yuga.[52]
Upaveda
The term upaveda ("applied knowledge") is used in traditional literature to designate the subjects of certain technical
works.[53] [54] Lists of what subjects are included in this class differ among sources. The Charanavyuha mentions
four Upavedas:
• Medicine (Āyurveda), associated with the Rigveda
• Archery (Dhanurveda), associated with the Yajurveda
• Music and sacred dance (Gāndharvaveda), associated with the Samaveda
• Military science (Shastrashastra), associated with the Atharvaveda
But Sushruta and Bhavaprakasha mention Ayurveda as an upaveda of the Atharvaveda. Sthapatyaveda (architecture),
Shilpa Shastras (arts and crafts) are mentioned as fourth upaveda according to later sources.
See also
• Hindu Philosophy
• Pandit
• Vedic chant
• Shakha
References
• Apte, Vaman Shivram (1965), The Practical Sanskrit Dictionary (4th revised & enlarged ed.), Delhi: Motilal
Banarsidass, ISBN 81-208-0567-4.
• Avari, Burjor (2007), India: The Ancient Past, London: Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-35616-9
• Flood, Gavin (1996), An Introduction to Hinduism, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-43878-0
• Flood, Gavin, ed. (2003), The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism, Malden, MA: Blackwell, ISBN 1-4051-3251-5
• Holdrege, Barbara A. (1995), Veda and Torah, SUNY Press, ISBN 0791416399
• MacDonell, Arthur Anthony (2004), A History of Sanskrit Literature, Kessinger Publishing, ISBN 1417906197
• Michaels, Axel (2004), Hinduism: Past and Present, Princeton University Press, ISBN 0-691-08953-1
• Monier-Williams, Monier, ed. (2006), Monier-Williams Sanskrit Dictionary, Nataraj Books,
ISBN 18-81338-58-4.
• Muir, John (1861), Original Sanskrit Texts on the Origin and Progress of the Religion and Institutions of India
[57]
, Williams and Norgate
• Müller, Max (1891), Chips from a German Workshop [58], New York: C. Scribner's sons.
• Radhakrishnan, Sarvepalli; Moore, Charles A., eds. (1957), A Sourcebook in Indian Philosophy (12th Princeton
Paperback ed.), Princeton University Press, ISBN 0-691-01958-4.
• Smith, Brian K., Canonical Authority and Social Classification: Veda and "Varṇa" in Ancient Indian Texts-,
History of Religions, The University of Chicago Press (1992), 103-125.
• Sullivan, B. M. (Summer 1994). "The Religious Authority of the Mahabharata: Vyasa and Brahma in the Hindu
Scriptural Tradition". Journal of the American Academy of Religion 62 (1): 377–401.
doi:10.1093/jaarel/LXII.2.377.
• Witzel, Michael (ed.) (1997), Inside the Texts, Beyond the Texts. New Approaches to the Study of the Vedas,
Harvard Oriental Series, Opera Minora vol. 2, Cambridge: Harvard University Press
• Zaehner, R. C. (1966), Hindu Scriptures, London: Everyman's Library
Literature
Overviews
• J. Gonda, Vedic Literature: Saṃhitās and Brāhmaṇas, A History of Indian literature. Vol. 1, Veda and
Upanishads (1975), ISBN 9783447016032.
• J. A. Santucci, An Outline of Vedic Literature (1976).
• S. Shrava, A Comprehensive History of Vedic Literature — Brahmana and Aranyaka Works, Pranava Prakashan
(1977).
Concordances
• M. Bloomfield, A Vedic Concordance (1907)
• Vishva Bandhu, Bhim Dev, S. Bhaskaran Nair (eds.), Vaidika-Padānukrama-Koṣa: A Vedic Word-Concordance,
Vishveshvaranand Vedic Research Institute, Hoshiarpur, 1963–1965, revised edition 1973-1976.
Conference proceedings
• Griffiths, Arlo and Houben, Jan E. M. (eds.), The Vedas : texts, language & ritual: proceedings of the Third
International Vedic Workshop, Leiden 2002, Groningen Oriental Studies 20, Groningen : Forsten, (2004), ISBN
Vedas 11
90-6980-149-3.
External links
• GRETIL etexts [59]
• The Vedas at sacred-texts.com [60]
• Vedas: Rig, Sama, Yajur, and Atharva [61]
• Vedas and Upanishads Complete set [62]
References
[1] see e.g. Radhakrishnan & Moore 1957, p. 3; Witzel, Michael, "Vedas and Upaniṣads", in: Flood 2003, p. 68; MacDonell 2004, p. 29-39;
Sanskrit literature (2003) in Philip's Encyclopedia. Accessed 2007-08-09
[2] Bloomfield, M. The Atharvaveda and the Gopatha-Brahmana, (Grundriss der Indo-Arischen Philologie und Altertumskunde II.1.b.)
Strassburg 1899; Gonda, J. A history of Indian literature: I.1 Vedic literature (Samhitas and Brahmanas); I.2 The Ritual Sutras. Wiesbaden
1975, 1977
[3] Apte, pp. 109f. has "not of the authorship of man, of divine origin"
[4] Apte 1965, p. 887
[5] Müller 1891, p. 17-18
[6] Flood 1996, p. 82
[7] "The brahmin by caste alone, the teacher of the Veda, is (jokingly) etymologized as the 'non-meditator' (ajjhāyaka). Brahmins who have
memorized the three Vedas (tevijja) really know nothing: it is the process of achieving Enlightenment - what the Buddha is said to have
achieved in the three watches of that night - which constitutes the true 'three knowledges.'" R.F. Gombrich in Paul Williams, ed., "Buddhism:
Critical Concepts in Religious Studies." Taylor and Francis 2006, page 120.
[8] Chahal, Dr. Devindar Singh (Jan-June 2006). "Is Sikhism a Unique Religion or a Vedantic Religion?". Understanding Sikhism - the Research
Journal 8 (1): 3–5.
[9] Aad Guru Granth Sahib. Shiromani Gurdwara Parbandhak Committee, Amritsar. 1983.
[10] "Eclecticism and Modern Hindu Discourse, Brian Hatcher, OUP 1999"
[11] The Dravidian Movement by Gail Omvedt
[12] The Vernacular Veda by Vasudha Narayanan
[13] Monier-Williams 2006, p. 1015; Apte 1965, p. 856
[14] K.F. Geldner. Der Rig-Veda, Harvard Oriental Series 33-37, Cambridge 1951
[15] see e.g. Pokorny's 1959 Indogermanisches etymologisches Wörterbuch s.v. u̯(e)id-²; Rix' Lexikon der indogermanischen Verben, u̯ei̯d-.
Old-slavic and old-church slavonic/old bulgarian form ' "knowledge" and verb ' "to know"
[16] Monier-Williams (1899)
[17] Müller, Friedrich Max (author) & Stone, Jon R. (author, editor) (2002). The essential Max Müller: on language, mythology, and religion.
Illustrated edition. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 0312293097, 9780312293093. Source: (http:/ / books. google. com. au/
books?id=Q96EsUCVlLsC& printsec=frontcover& dq=Max+ Müller& ei=SRjkS6LcI4TulQSj6InGCQ& cd=3#v=onepage& q& f=false)
(accessed: Friday May 7, 2010), p.44
[18] Flood 1996, p. 37
[19] Witzel, Michael, "Vedas and Upaniṣads", in: Flood 2003, p. 68
[20] For the possibility of written texts during the first century BCE see: Witzel, Michael, "Vedas and Upaniṣads", in: Flood 2003, p. 69; For oral
composition and oral transmission for "many hundreds of years" before being written down, see: Avari 2007, p. 76.
[21] Brodd, Jefferey (2003). World Religions. Winona, MN: Saint Mary's Press. ISBN 978-0-88489-725-5.
[22] according to ISKCON, Hindu Sacred Texts (http:/ / hinduism. iskcon. com/ tradition/ 1105. htm), "Hindus themselves often use the term to
describe anything connected to the Vedas and their corollaries (e.g. Vedic culture)".
[23] 37,575 are Rigvedic. Of the remaining, 34,857 appear in the other three Samhitas, and 16,405 are known only from Brahmanas, Upanishads
or Sutras)
[24] Michaels 2004, p. 51.
[25] Witzel, Michael, "Vedas and Upaniṣads", in: Flood 2003, p. 69.
[26] For a table of all Vedic texts see Witzel, Michael, "Vedas and Upaniṣads", in: Flood 2003, p. 100–101.
[27] Flood 1996, p. 39.
[28] (Staal 1986)
[29] (Filliozat 2004, p. 139)
[30] Radhakrishnan & Moore 1957, p. 3; Witzel, Michael, "Vedas and Upaniṣads", in: Flood 2003, p. 68
[31] MacDonell 2004, p. 29-39
[32] Witzel, M., " The Development of the Vedic Canon and its Schools : The Social and Political Milieu (http:/ / www. people. fas. harvard.
edu/ ~witzel/ canon. pdf)" in Witzel 1997, p. 257-348
Vedas 12
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