EEL 841

Solid State Controllers of Drives

Prof. Bhim Singh

Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi
Hauz Khas, New Delhi-110016, India

1
Stepper Motor Drives

2
 Stepper Motor
¾ A stepper motor is an electromagnetic incremental
actuator which converts digital pulse inputs to analog
output shaft motion;
¾ The shaft of the stepper motor rotates in equal
increments in response to a train of input pulses.
¾ When properly controlled, the output steps of a
stepping motor are always equal in number to the
number of input pulses.

3
 Advantages of Stepper Motor
¾ A stepper motor is inherently a discrete motion device,
therefore it is more compatible with modern digital
control techniques;
¾ It is more easily adaptable for interfacing with other
digital components;
¾ The positional error in a stepper motor is non-
cumulative;
¾ It is possible to achieve accurate position and speed
control with a step motor in an open loop system;
¾ Thus, avoiding the ordinary instability problems and
elimination of feedback transducers;
4
 Advantages of Stepper Motor
¾ Power consumption for intermittent operation is
reduced during quiescent periods for a permanent
magnet type stepper motor;
¾ Design procedure is simpler for a stepper motor
control system

5
 Applications
of
Stepper Motor Drives

6
 Applications of Stepper Motor
¾ Stepper motor applications may be divided into
following classes:
o Instrumentation (low torque applications);
o Computer peripherals and office equipments
(medium torque, high performance, high volume
applications);
o Numerical control of machine tools and robotics
(high torque applications);
o Electro medical (high torque applications);
o Miscellaneous applications.

7
 Applications of Stepper Motor
¾ Instrumentation:
o Quartz watches;
o Synchronized clocks;
o Camera shutter operation;
o Mechanical converter (D/A).
¾ Computer peripherals:
o Dot matrix and line printers;
o Floppy disc drives;
o Digital x-y plotter;
o Magnetic tape transport;
o Paper tape drive.
8
 Applications of Stepper Motor
¾ Office Equipments:
o Electronic typewriter (serial printer);
o Fax machine;
¾ Machine tool applications:
o Numerically controlled (NC) milling machine;
o Index table;
o Robotics;
¾ Electro-medical Applications:
o X ray machines;
o Radiation therapy units.
o CAT scanners;
o Ultrasound scanners. 9
 Applications of Stepper Motor
¾ Miscellaneous Applications:
o Nuclear reactors;
o Aerospace;
o Solar panel tracking.
o Constant flow hydraulic pumps;
o Tele operated TV camera;
o UV spectrometer etc.

10
 Classification
of
Stepper Motor Drives

11
Classification of Stepper Motor

12
Permanent Magnet Stepper Motor
¾ It has permanent magnet on the rotor and also known as can-
stack motor;
¾ Due to its low manufacturing cost, it is employed in paper feed
motor of printers or head drive motor of a floppy disc drive.

13
Cutaway View of 2 ph PM Stepper Motor

14
Variable Reluctance Stepper Motor
¾ It has no permanent magnet either on the rotor or the stator;
¾ The rotor carries no windings and has salient pole construction;
¾ Rotor and stator both are made of soft iron stampings.
¾ The stator also has salient poles and carry stator windings.
¾ The number of stator poles is an even multiple of the number of
phases for which the stator windings are wound.
¾ The number of phases must be at least three for bidirectional
control of stepper motor.
¾ It can have single stack or multi stack construction;
¾ The torque developed by the motor shall be more in multi stack
motor.
15
Variable Reluctance (VR) Stepper Motor

6/4 pole 12/8 pole

Single Stack
16
VR Multi Stack Stepper Motor

Cross Section Parallel to Shaft

17
VR Multi Stack Stepper Motor

18
Cross Section Parpendicular to Shaft
VR Multi Stack Stepper Motor

19
 Hybrid Stepper Motor
¾ It has permanent magnet mounted on the rotor;
¾ It provides détente torque with windings de-energized;
¾ Less tendency to resonate;
¾ Higher holding torque capability;
¾ Better damping due to the presence of rotor magnet;
¾ High stepping rate capability;
¾ High efficiency at lower speeds and lower stepping rates.
¾ It suffers from high inertia and weight due to presence of rotor
magnets;
¾ Performance is affected by change in magnet strength.

20
Hybrid Stepper Motor

Cross Section Parallel to Shaft

21
 Hybrid Stepper Motor

Cross Section Perpendicular to Shaft

22
Operation of Hybrid Stepper Motor
¾ As long as the stator winding A and B are energised in a
particular manner, the rotor stays put in the corresponding
position;
¾ The rotor will move further only when the pattern of
energization of the stator windings is changed;
¾ Figures a – h in next slide represent programmed sequence;
¾ Figures a,c,e,g represent single phase energisation, however,
b,d,f,g represent two phase energisation;
¾ These figures constitute 8 step sequence in which the rotor
moves 45º per step;
¾ Here one or two phases are alternatively energised, therefore
this sequence is known as hybrid or mixed or 1-2 sequence. 23
Hybrid Stepper Motor operation

24
1.8º Rotation Hybrid Stepper Motor
¾ It carries a cylindrical permanent
magnet sandwiched between two
rotor discs;
¾ The stator and rotor both are
made of soft iron stampings;
¾ Each rotor disc has 50 teeth and
the stator has 8 poles with 5 teeth
per pole;
¾ There are 40 poles on the stator
which can be in perfect
alignment or misalignment
depending on the switching.
25
1.8º Hybrid Stepper Motor

26
1.8º Hybrid Bifilar Stepper Motor

27
Characteristics of Stepper
Motors

28
 Static Characteristics

Torque Angle Curve

Torque Current Curve Hybrid motor torque and detente

torque profile 29
 Dynamic Characteristics
¾ Pull in curve: corresponds to start-stop or single stepping mode;
¾ Pull out curve: corresponds to slewing mode;

Start Stop Mode

Torque speed characteristic Slewing Mode 30

 Dynamic Characteristics
¾ Start-stop Mode: rotor comes to rest after one step;
¾ Slewing Mode: rotor still moves in response to previous pulse
when next pulse arrives; Therefore motor can overrun by
several steps before stopping.
¾ Mid Frequency Resonance :
Pull in curve of stepper motor
suddenly dips very low in
particular range of stepping
rates;
¾ This phenomenon os a
manifestation of instability of
motor operation.
31
 Some Definitions
¾ Step angle (θs) : It is the angle through which an unloaded
stepper motor rotates for every step of the energization
sequence; i.e. θs = 360º/Z
¾ Steps/revolution (Z) : For hybrid motor : Z=Nr.kws,
Kws = 4 for 4 step sequence (i.e. 1 ph on or 2 ph on)
Kws = 8 for 8 step (i.e. 1-2 or hybrid) sequence
of energization of stator winding;
For single stack VR stepper motor :
Ns = Nr ± p where p is no. of teeth per phase (minimum 2)
Z = p.m(m-1) for Ns > Nr; p.m(m+1) for Ns < Nr where Nr
and Ns are number of teeth in rotor and stator respectively;
m is number of phases (minimum 3) 32
 Some Definitions
¾ Holding Torque (TH) : It is the maximum load torque which the
energized stepper motor can withstand without slipping from
equilibrium position;
¾ Detente Torque (TD) : It is the maximum load torque which the
un-energized stepper motor can withstand without slipping;
Détente torque is due to residual magnetism and is therefore
present in PM or hybrid stepper motor only;
¾ Torque Constant (Kt) : It is the initial slope of the torque-current
curve of the stepper motor, and also known as torque sensitivity;
¾ Pull-in Torque (TPI) : It is the maximum torque that the stepper
motor can develop in the start-stop mode at a given stepping rate
Fs (steps/sec), without losing synchronism;
33
 Some Definitions
¾ Pull-out Torque (TPO) : It is the maximum torque that the stepper
motor can develop at a given stepping rate Fs (steps/sec), in the
slewing mode, without losing synchronism;
¾ Pull-in Rate (FPI) : It is the maximum stepping rate at which the
stepper motor will start or stop, without losing synchronism,
against a given load torque T.
¾ Pull-out Rate (FPO) : It is the maximum stepping rate at which
the stepper motor will slew, without missing steps, against a load
torque T.
¾ Response Range : It is the range of stepping rate at which the
stepper motor can start or stop, without losing synchronism, at a
given torque T. Response range spans stepping rates Fs ≤ FPI;
34
 Some Definitions
¾ Slewing Range : It is the range of stepping rate FPI ≤ Fs ≤ FPO at
which the stepper motor can run in the slewing mode, against a
given load torque T, without losing synchronism;
¾ Synchronism : This term means strict one to one correspondence
between the number of pulses applied to the stepper motor and
number of steps through which the motor has actually moved;
¾ Stiffness : It is the slope of the static torque / rotor position
characteristic at the equilibrium position.

35
Analysis of Stepper Motors

36
 Static Torque Production
¾ For a motor with p rotor teeth and a peak static torque TPK at a
rotor displacement θ from the step position, the torque developed
by the motor is approximately T = - TPK sin pθ;
¾ When a load torque TL is applied the rotor is displaced from the
demanded position by the angle θe, at which the load and motor
torques are equal, i.e. TL = T = - TPK sin pθe;
¾ The static position error is θe = {sin-1 (- TL /TPK)}/ p;
¾ Therefore, static position error can be reduced either by
increasing the peak static torque or by increasing the number of
rotor teeth.
¾ A motor with high stiffness develops a large torque for a small
displacement from equilibrium.
37
 Static Torque Production
¾ Considering a 4 phase motor with two-phases-on excitation
which gives approximately sinusoidal torque/position
characteristic as shown;
¾ The first step command changes excitation to phases B & C and
the static torque at the position θe then exceeds the load torque,
so the motor accelerates in positive direction;

¾ Assuming that the motor has

moved to θ1 with phase BC
excited, the average torque
produced is:

1 θ1 TPK
TM = ∫θ −TPK sin ( pθ − π 2 ) dθ = [sin pθ1 − sin pθe ]
θ1 − θ e e p (θ1 − θ e )
38
Static Torque Production
The equation of motion for the system inertia (J) is
TM − TL = Jd 2θ / dt 2 which, after solving, gives
θ = (TM − TL ) t 2 / J + θ e ;
After one period of escitation t p the rotor is at position θ1 ,
therefore
θ1 = (TM − TL ) t / J + θ e or t p = [ J (θ1 − θ e ) /(TM − TL )]
2 1/ 2
p

So the starting rate for the four phase motor is

approximately :
Starting rate = 1/t p = [ (TM − TL ) / J (θ1 − θ e )]
1/ 2

39
Converter Topologies for
Stepper Motor Drives

40
3 phase Uni-polar Drive Circuit
+Vs

Forcing Resistance R

Free wheeling Resistance Rf

1 2 3

Phase 1 Base
control
Signal
Drive

41
Bipolar Drive Circuit (one phase)
+Vs

Phase 1+ Base Base Phase 1-

control T1 D1 D2 T2 control
Drive Drive Signal
Signal
Forcing
Resistance R

Phase 1
winding
Phase 1- Base Base Phase 1+
control T3 D3 D4 T4 control
Drive Drive Signal
Signal

42
Uni-polar Drive Circuit for one phase of
Bifilar Wound Stepper Motor
+Vs
Rf R Rf

•
1
•

Phase 1+ Phase 1-
Base Base control
control
Drive Drive Signal
Signal

43
Uni-polar Bilevel Drive (one phase)
Circuit Phase Current

2
H

44
Uni-polar Chopper Drive Circuit
(one phase)

T2
D2

1
VH D1

T1

Rc Vc

45
Control Schemes for Stepper
Motor Drives

46
Microprocessor based Open Loop
Control for Stepper Motor

47
Constant Stepping Rate Open Loop Control

48
Closed Loop Control for Stepper Motor

49
Micro stepping Control of
Stepper Motors

50
 Micro Stepping Control
¾ Micro stepping control
enables the stepper motor to
move through a tiny micro
step of size ∆θ << θs in
response to input pulse;
¾ This overcomes the limited
resolution and mid frequency
response problems;
¾ The pull out curve of micro
stepping control is shown

51
 Micro Stepping Control
¾ In micro stepping control, the stator magnetic field is made to
rotate through a small angle θ << 90º in response to an input
pulse;
¾ This is achieved by modulating currents through windings B2
and A1 in such a way that IB2 = IR Cos θ, while IA1 = IR sin θ;
¾ The resulting stator magnetic field will be at an angle θº
(elect.) w.r.t. the positive real axis;
¾ The phasor diagram and the sequence table for micro stepping
control is given in next slides.
¾ The torque developed is same as developed under one-phase-
on sequence, as the resultant current remains IR;
¾ However, if the torque required is as under two-phase-on
sequence then the magnitudes of the currents should be such
that IA2 + IB2 = 2. 52
Micro Stepping Principle

53
Circuit for Micro Stepping Control

Current Current
Controller Controller
A B

IA IB
Power
supply

Phase Phase
A B

1 2 3 4

54
Micro Stepping Table

55
Block Diagram of Micro-stepping Controller

56
Block Diagram of Micro-Friend II Kit

57
 Advantages of Micro Stepping
¾ Improvement in resolution by the factor MSR (micro stepping
ratio) i.e. MSR = θs /∆θ in as much as the smallest angle
through which the motor rotates per input pulse is : ∆θ =
(1/MSR). θs usual values of MSR are 5, 10, 125 and powers of
2 up to 128;
¾ Rapid motion at a micro stepping rate MFs = MSR.Fs where Fs
is full stepping rate;
¾ DC motor like smooth performance;
¾ Elimination of mid frequency resonance.

58
 References
1. A.C. Leenhouts, “The art and practice of step motor control,” Intertec
communications Inc., 1987.
2. B.C. Kuo, “theory and applications of step motors,” west publishing co., 1974.
3. P.P.Acarnley, “Stepping Motors : a guide to modern theory and practice,”
Peter Peregrinus Ltd., 1982.
4. V.V. Athani, “ Stepper Motors: fundamentals, applications and design”, New
age international (P) ltd. publishers, New Delhi, 1997.

59