Shortcourse09 Obia

Short Course Remote Sensing 2009
Part 1: Image Analysis for Remote Sensing
Object-based Image Analysis
Dr. Irmgard Niemeyer · Geomonitoring Group · Institute for Mine-Surveying and Geodesy · TU Bergakademie Freiberg
Reiche Zeche, Fuchsmühlenweg 9 · D-09599 Freiberg, Germany
Tel./Fax +49 3731 39-3591/-3601 · irmgard.niemeyer@tu-freiberg.de · www.geomonitoring.tu-freiberg.de
1. Introduction: Advantages of object-based satellite imagery
analysis
2. Segmentation
3. Object features
4. Feature extraction
5. Classification
6. Processes
7. Change detection
8. Examples
2
1. Advantages of object-based imagery analysis
3
What, if we had
• the borders of real-world objects,
• thematic information on land register,
• a surface model?
4
Rule bases Change Detection Automation
Human and computer vision
Human visual system:
⇑ identification and understanding of objects and
their context
⇓ estimation of grey values, distances and areas
Digital image processing system:

⇓ identification and understanding of objects and
their context
⇑ estimation of grey values, distances and areas
Æ„Enhancement “ of the human eye?
Æ Improvements of software techniques towards human image

understanding?!
5
Pixel-based image analysis
multispectral
reflection
signature
wavelength
Image matrix X=(x)ijn j
i=1...I rows
j=1...J lines/pixels
n=1...N bands
n
6
Pixel-based image analysis
Band 2
multispectral, N-dimensional
feature space
d N
Ban
Band 1
Band 3
vegetation
Using the multispectral feature space

soils
for classification
water Band 1
[Albertz 2001, modified]
Band 2
7
Pixel-based classification
of high resolution images?
© Definiens
8
Object level 3
Object-based
Object level 2
approaches
Object level 1
Pixel
[Baatz et al. 2000]
Object level 1 Object level 2 Object level 3
9
http://www.definiens.com
10
http://www.definiens.com
11
• Beyond purely spectral information, image objects contain a lot of
additional attributes which can be used for classification: shape,
texture and—operating over the network—a whole set of relational /
contextual information.
• Multiresolution segmentation separates adjacent regions in an image as
long as they are significantly contrasted—even when the regions
themselves are characterized by a certain texture or noise.
• Thus, even textured image data can be analyzed.
• Each classification task has its specific scale. Only image objects of an
appropriate resolution permit analysis of meaningful contextual
information.
• Multiresolution segmentation provides the possibility to easily adapt
image object resolution to specific requirements, data and tasks.
• Homogeneous image objects provide a significantly increased signal-to-
noise ratio compared to single pixels as to the attributes to be used for
classification.
12
[eCognition User Guide 4, Definiens 2004]
• Thus, independent of the multitude of additional information, the
classification is more robust.
• Segmentation drastically reduces the sheer number of units to be
handled for classification. Even if a lot of intelligence is applied to the
analysis of each single image object, the classification works relatively
fast.
• Using the possibility to produce image objects in different resolutions,
a project can contain a hierarchical network with different object
levels of different resolutions. This structure represents image
information on different scales simultaneously.
• Thus, different object levels can be analyzed in relation to each other.
For instance, image objects can be classified as to the detailed
composition of sub-objects.
• The object oriented approach which first extracts homogeneous regions
and then classifies them avoids the annoying salt-and-pepper effect of
the more or less spatially finely distributed classification results.
13
2. Segmentation
14
[Definiens Developer 7 User Guide]
2. Segmentation: Chessboard Segmentation
Split the pixel domain or an image object domain into square image objects.
A square grid aligned to the image left and top borders of fixed size is applied
to all objects in the domain and each object is cut along these grid lines.
Result of chessboard segmentation with scale 20
15
[Definiens Developer 7 Reference Book]
2. Segmentation: Quad Tree Based Segmentation
Split the pixel domain or an image object domain into a quad tree grid
formed by square objects. A quad tree grid consists of squares with sides each
having a power of 2 and aligned to the image left and top borders is applied
to all objects in the domain and each object is cut along this grid lines. The
quad tree structure is build in a way that each square has first maximum
possible size and second fulfils the homogeneity criteria as defined by the
mode and scale parameter.
16
[Definiens Developer 7 Reference Book / User Guide]
2. Segmentation: Quad Tree Based Segmentation
Result of quad tree based segmentation with mode color and scale 100
17
2. Segmentation: Multiresolution Segmentation
Apply an optimization procedure which locally minimizes the average
heterogeneity of image objects for a given resolution. It can be applied on
the pixel level or an image object level domain.
The segmentation procedure works according the following rules,
representing a mutual-best-fitting approach:
• The segmentation procedure starts with single image objects of 1 (one)
pixel size and merges them in several loops iteratively in pairs to larger
units as long as an upper threshold of homogeneity is not exceeded
locally. This homogeneity criterion is defined as a combination of
spectral homogeneity and shape homogeneity. You can influence this
calculation by modifying the scale parameter. Higher values for the scale
parameter result in larger image objects, smaller values in smaller image
objects.
• As the first step of the procedure, the seed looks for its best-fitting
neighbour for a potential merger.
18
• If best-fitting is not mutual, the best candidate image object becomes the
new seed image object and finds its best fitting partner.
• When best fitting is mutual, image objects are merged.
• In each loop, every image object in the image object level will be
handled once.
• The loops continue until no further merger is possible.
19
20
21
22
h(s) = w c hc (s) + w s hs (s)

1 n _
hc (s) = ∑ i
n − 1 i =1
( x − x ) 2
hs (s) = w smoothhsmooth(s) + w comp hcomp (s)

l
hcomp (s) =
n
l c = color
hsmooth(s) = s = shape
b
smooth
compact = compactness
l = border length
b = lenght of edge box
n = number of pixels in the object
23
Result of multiresolution segmentation with scale 50, shape 0.1 and compactness 0.5
24
• Segmentation procedure should produce highly homogeneous segments
for the optimal separation and representation of image regions.
• The average size of image objects must be adaptable to the scale of
interest.
• Resulting image objects should be of more or less same magnitude.
• Segmentation procedure should be universal and applicable to a large
number of different data types and problems.
• Segmentation results should be reproducible.
• Segmentation procedure should therefore be as fast as possible.
• Region merge
• Fusion of pixels by a criterion of homogeneity.
• Minimisation of the weighted heterogeneity of objects
• Segmentation Parameter: Scale Parameter, Homogeneity criterion
(Color/shape)
25
2. Segmentation: More Techniques
• Contrast Split Segmentation: Segments an image or an image object into dark
and bright regions. The contrast split algorithm segments an image (or image
object) based on a threshold that maximizes the contrast between the resulting
bright objects (consisting of pixels with pixel values above threshold) and dark
objects (consisting of pixels with pixel values below the threshold).
• Spectral Difference Segmentation: Merges neighbouring objects according to
their mean layer intensity values. Neighbouring image objects are merged if the
difference between their layer mean intensities is below the value given by the
maximum spectral difference. This algorithm is designed to refine existing
segmentation results.
• Contrast Filter Segmentation: Uses pixel filters to detect potential objects by
contrast and gradient and create suitable object primitives. An integrated
reshaping operation modifies the shape of image objects to help form coherent
and compact image objects. The resulting pixel classification is stored in an
internal thematic layer. Each pixel is classified as one of the following classes: no
object, object in first layer, object in second layer, object in both layers, ignored
by threshold. Finally a chessboard segmentation is used to convert this thematic
layer into an image object level. 26
2. Segmentation: Object levels
27
28
29
2. Segmentation: Recommendations
Produce Image Objects that Suit the Purpose
• Always produce image objects of the biggest possible scale which still
distinguishes different image regions (as large as possible and as fine
as necessary). There is a tolerance concerning the scale of the image
objects representing an area of a consistent classification due to the
equalization achieved by the classification. The separation of different
regions is more important than the scale of image objects.
• Use as much colour criterion as possible while keeping the shape
criterion as high as necessary to produce image objects of the best
border smoothness and compactness. The reason for this is that a high
degree of shape criterion works at the cost of spectral homogeneity.
However, the spectral information is, at the end, the primary
information contained in image data. Using too much shape criterion can
therefore reduce the quality of segmentation results.
30
3. Object features
Image objects have spectral, shape, and hierarchical characteristics.
These characteristic attributes are called Features in Definiens software.
Features are used as source of information to define the inclusion-or-
exclusion parameters used to classify image objects.
There are two major types of features:
• Object features are attributes of image objects, for example the area
of an image object.
• Global features are not connected to an individual image object, for
example the number of image objects of a certain class.
31
3. Object features: Membership functions
32
3. Object features
Object Features
Class-Related Features
Scene Features
Process-Related Features
Customized
Metadata
Feature Variables
33
3. Object features: Membership functions
34
3. Object features
35
3. Object features
36
3. Object features
37
3. Object features
38
4. Feature extraction: Automation
SEATH: A semi-automatic feature recognition tool
[Nussbaum et al. 2006, Marpu et al. 2008]
Based on training samples the feature analyzing tool SEaTH (SEparability
and THresholds) identifies the significant object features.
Bayes’ statistical approach:

Solving p(x|C1) p(C1) = p(X|C2) p(C2) for x
39
4. Feature extraction: Automation
SEATH: A semi-automatic feature recognition tool
thresholds
prominent features
Output:
• Object features providing the optimal separability of the object
classes (Jeffries-Matusita distance)
• Feature thresholds for the optimal separability
40
5. Classification
Classification algorithms analyze image objects according defined criteria
and assign them each to a class that best meets the defined criteria.
When editing processes, you can choose from the following classification
algorithms:
• Assign class: assigns a class to image object with certain features.
• Classification: uses the class description to assign a class
• Hierarchical classification: uses the class description as well as the
hierarchical structure of classes.
• Advanced Classification Algorithms: are designed to perform a
specific classification task like finding extrema or identifying
connections between objects.
41
5. Classification
42
6. Processes
• Definiens Developer provides an artificial language for developing
advanced image analysis algorithms. These algorithms use the principles
of object oriented image analysis and local adaptive processing. This is
achieved by processes.
• A single process is the elementary unit of a rule set providing a solution to
a specific image analysis task. Processes are the main working tools for
developing rule sets.
• The main functional parts of a single process are the algorithm and the
image object domain. A single process allows the application of a specific
algorithm to a specific region of interest in the image. All conditions for
classification as well as region of interest selection may incorporate
semantic information.
• Processes may have an arbitrary number of child processes. The so
formed process hierarchy defines the structure and flow control of the
image analysis. Arranging processes containing different types of
algorithms allows the user to build a sequential image analysis routine.
43
6. Processes
The algorithm defines the operation the process will perform. This can be
generating image objects, merging or splitting image objects, classifying
objects etc.
• Segmentation algorithms
• Classification algorithms
• Variables operation algorithms
• Reshaping algorithms
• Level operation algorithms
• Interactive operation algorithms
• Sample operation
• Image layer operation algorithms
• Thematic layer operation algorithms
• Export algorithms
• Workspace automation algorithms
• Process related operation
44
6. Processes
45
6. Processes
46
6. Processes: Image Object Domain
The image object domain describes the region of interest where the
algorithm of the process will be executed in the image object hierarchy.
Examples for image object domains are the entire image, an image
object level or all image objects of a given class.
47
7. Change Detection
• Change detection is the process of identifying and quantifying temporal

differences in the state of an object or phenomenon.
• When using satellite imagery from two acquisition times, each image
pixel or object from the first time will be compared with the
corresponding pixel or object from the second time in order to derive
the degree of change between the two times.
• Most commonly, differences in radiance values are taken as a measure
of change.
• A variety of digital change detection techniques has been developed in
the past three decades.
• Differences in radiance values indicating significant (“real”) changes
have to be larger compared to radiance changes due to other factors.
The aim of pre-processing is therefore to correct the radiance
differences caused by variations in solar illumination, atmospheric
conditions and sensor performance and geometric distortion
[Singh 1989]
respectively.
48
7. Change Detection
change of the image pixel
Change measure:
• grey values,
• texture,
• transformed values,
• class membership.
Approaches: Changes of
• the spectral or texture pixel values:
arithmetic procedures, regression, change vector, ...
• transformed pixel values:
principal component analysis, multivariate alteration detection, ...
• the class memberships of the pixels:
comparison of classifications, multitemporal classification, ...
49
7. Change Detection
Change measure:
change of the image object
• layer features (mean, stdev,
ratio, texture,…)
• shape features (area,
direction, position,…)
• relations among neighbouring,
sub- and super-objects
time 1 time 2 • object class membership
50
7. Change Detection: Object extraction
Given image data from two acquisition times,

the segmentation could be carried out
Time 1
1. on the basis of the bitemporal data set,

Time 2 Segmentation
levels
2. by applying the segmentation parameters

to the image data of one date and Time 1
assigning the object borders to the image Time 2
data of the other date, Segmentation

levels
Time 1
3. separately for the two times.

Time 2
Segmentation
levels
51
[Niemeyer et al. 2008]
7. Change Detection: Feature extraction
• Common segmentation (1, 2):

- apparently time-invariant object features (e.g. shape features)
- time-variant object features (e.g. layer features)
• separate segmentation (3):

- time-variant object features
• but: problems in the extraction of no-change objects due to
overall variations
52
7. Change Detection: Bitemporal segmentation
[Niemeyer et al. 2009 from Listner 2008] 53

Procedure
• For testing the plausibility of the merges, Listner (2008) suggested

two different techniques, the so-called threshold test and the local
best fitting test.
• Splitting of the segments was done either by global or universal
segment adjustment.
• Implementation: The procedure was programmed and implemented
using the development environment Matlab and the Matlab-Toolkit
Dipimage. 54
global segment adjustment

universal segment adjustment
...
...
...
[Listner 2008] 55


7. Change Detection: Combined pixel-/object-based approach
( )
OrthoEngine
58
Motivation Rule bases Automation
Input Data: QUICKBIRD, Esfahan Nuclear Centre

PAN (0.6 m) MS (2.4 m)
July 2002
July 2003
59
Very-high resolution optical imagery
Pre-processing
• image-to-image registration by contour

matching or image correlation
• radiometric normalisation using no-

change pixels
• pan-sharpening by wavelet
transformation
60
C omparison of different
fusion techniques
PC Spectral
ARSIS
Sharpening
2002 Pan-sharpened 2003
Gram Schmidt Resolution

Spectral Merge
Sharpening
61
July 2002 July 2003
Pre-processed Quickbird image Pre-processed Quickbird image

(Credit: DigitalGlobe)
[Nussbaum & Niemeyer 2007] 62

Change detection
Multivariate Alteration Detection (MAD) [Nielsen 2007, Nielsen et al. 1998]
time 1 time 2
D= a TX - bTY
• Canonical correlation, MAD analysis.
• Fully automatic scheme gives regularized iterated MAD variates
(MAD’s), invariant to linear/affine transformations, orthogonal.
• Implemented as ENVI extension [Canty 2006], download at:
http://www.fz-juelich.de/ief/ief-ste/datapool/page/210/canty_7251.zip
63
MAD Components 1 (red), 2 (green), 3 (blue)
Automatic threshold
Automatic threshold * 2
Automatic threshold * 3 64
Multiresolution Segmentation
On the basis of the 2003 pan-sharpened MS
Level 1 Level 3 Level 5
Level 1
65
Object extraction
Chessboard segmentation &
subsequent multiresolution
segmentation
Process flow
AST_07 data, pixel level AST_07 data, object level
66
Change information given by the pixel’s DN MAD transformation
Change information given by the

object’s features
MAD 2 (red), MAD 3 (green), MAD 4 (blue)

Gray indicates „no change“. Different types of changes are represented by different
MADs and thus colours.
67
Class hierarchy
Classification
of changes
68
ASTER July 2000 ASTER July 2001

Classification
(using SEaTH for
„industrial sites“)
industrial sites
Thematic information
Change detection (Using MAD)
Change information
Change given by MADs 2,3,4. changes within industrial areas

Gray: No change
Colours: Different types of changes
[Niemeyer & Nussbaum 2006] 69
Semantic classification using SEATH [Nussbaum et al. 2006, Marpu et al. 2008]
July 2002 July 2003
Object classes “buildings” and “streets” Object classes “buildings” and “streets”

Semantic classification of changes

Semantic classification using SEATH [Nussbaum et al. 2006, Marpu et al. 2008]

MAD transformation and semantic classification of changes

7. Change Detection based on object features
Pre- Object Feature Change Clustering Post-classification

processing extraction extraction detection of change processing
objects
Time 1
Map of Improved map of

changes changes
Time 2
Segmentation
Feature views, i.e.
levels
Image data Layer features,
shape features
74
Multivariate Alteration Detection [Nielsen 2007, Nielsen et al. 1998]
• linear combination of the intensities for all N object features in the

first image acquired at time t1, represented by the random vector F.
U = aTF = a1F1 + a2F2 + . . . aNFN
• linear combination all N object features in the second image acquired

at time t2, represented by the random vector G.
V = bTG = b1G1 + b2G2 + . . . bNGN
• scalar difference image

D=U −V= aTF − bTG
• determination of a and b, so that the positive correlation between U

and V is minimized (generalized eigenvalue problem)
75
Multivariate Alteration Detection
• As a consequence, the difference image D
contains the maximum spread in its pixel
intensities and therefore maximum change
information.
• For a given number of bands N, the
procedure returns N eigenvalues, N pairs
of eigenvectors and N orthogonal
(uncorrelated) difference images, referred
to as to the MAD variates.
• Multivariate autocorrelation factor (MAF)
transformation (Minimum noise fraction
transformation)
• Automatic thresholding (probability
mixture model)
76
Change detection: Change information given by object MADs
[Niemeyer et al. 2009] 77

Unsupervised classification of changes

• MAD transformation enhances different
types of changes within the object
level rather than classifying them.
• Clustering by fuzzy maximum likelihood
estimation (FMLE) (Gath and Geva,
1989).
MAD transformation of objects, with
• Advantages of forming elongated automatic thresholds
clusters and clusters of widely varying MAD 1 (R), MAD 2 (G), MAD 4 (B)
memberships.
• The fuzzy cluster membership of an
object calculated in FMLE is the a-
posteriori probability p(C|f) of a object
(change) class C, given the object
feature f.
78
MAD transformation based on object features
Layer features Shape features
MAF/MAD components 3 (red), 4 (green) and 5 (blue),

grey indicates no-change, different color indicate different types of changes
79
FMLE classification of MAD components
Layer features Shape features
Clustering for 6 classes

80
References
Bachmann, F., Marpu, P.R. & Niemeyer, I., 2008: An Architecture based on Nielsen, A.A., Conradsen, K. & Simpson, J.J., 1998: Multivariate alteration
Neural Networks. MatGeoS 1st Workshop on Mathematical Geosciences, detection (MAD) and MAF processing in multispectral, bitemporal image
Freiberg (Germany), June 2008 data: New approaches to change detection studies. Remote Sensing of
Environment 64, pp. 1–19.
Blaschke, T., Lang, S., & Hay, G., 2008: Object-Based Image Analysis Spatial
Concepts for Knowledge-Driven Remote Sensing Applications. Series: Niemeyer, I., Bachmann, F., Bratskikh, A., John, A., Kristinsdottir, B.,
Lecture Notes in Geoinformation and Cartography. Springer, Berlin. Listner, C. & Bachmann, F., 2009: Techniques for object-based image
analysis. In: Publikationen der Deutschen Gesellschaft für Photogrammetrie,
Canty, M.J., 2006: Image Analysis, Classification and Change Detection in
Fernerkundung und Geoinformation (DGPF) e.V., Band 17 (in print)
Remote Sensing, With Algorithms for ENVI/IDL. Taylor & Francis, CRC Press,
Niemeyer, I., Marpu, P.R. & Nussbaum, S., 2008: Change Detection using
Definiens, 2004: eCognition Userguide 4, Definiens, Munich.
Object Features. In: Blaschke, T., Lang, S., & Hay, G., 2008: Object-Based
Definiens, 2008: Definiens Developer 7 Reference Book. Definiens, Munich. Image Analysis Spatial Concepts for Knowledge-Driven Remote Sensing
Applications. Series: Lecture Notes in Geoinformation and Cartography.
Definiens, 2008: Definiens Developer 7 User Guide. Definiens, Munich.
Springer, Berlin, pp. 185-201.
John, A., 2008: Statistische Detektion und Analyse von Bildobjekt- und
Niemeyer, I. & Nussbaum, S., 2006: Change detection - the Potential for
Bildelementveränderungen, Research Paper, Geomonitoring Group, Institute
Nuclear Safeguards. In: Avenhaus, R., Kyriakopoulos, N., Richard, M. &
of Mine-Surveying and Geodesy, TU Bergakademie Freiberg.
Stein, G. (ed.), 2006: Verifying Treaty Compliance. Limiting Weapons of
Kristinsdóttir, B., 2008: Implications of Invariant Moments for Texture Mass Destruction and Monitoring Kyoto Protocol Provisions. Springer, Berlin,
Analysis, Segmentation and Classification. Diploma Thesis, Geomonitoring 335-348 .
Group, Institute of Mine-Surveying and Geodesy, TU Bergakademie Freiberg.
Nussbaum, S. & INiemeyer, I., 2007:Automated extraction of change
Listner, C., 2008: Bildsegmentierung für die objektbasierte information from multispectral satellite imagery. ESARDA Bulletin 36, 19-25
Änderungsdetektion digitaler Satellitenbilder. Master Thesis, Geomonitoring
Nussbaum, S., Niemeyer, I. & Canty, M.J. 2006: SEATH - A new tool for
Group, Institute of Mine-Surveying and Geodesy, TU Bergakademie Freiberg.
automated feature extraction in the context of object-based image
Marpu, P.R., Nussbaum, S., Niemeyer, I., & Gloaguen, R. 2008a: A analysis. In: Proc. 1st International Conference on Object-based Image
Procedure for Automatic Object-based Classification. In: Blaschke, T., Lang, Analysis (OBIA 2006), Salzburg, 4-5 July 2006, ISPRS Volume No. XXXVI –
S. & Hay, G. (ed.), 2008: Object-Based Image Analysis Spatial Concepts for 4/C42
Knowledge-Driven Remote Sensing Applications. Series: Lecture Notes in
Singh, A., 1989: Digital change detection techniques using remotely-sensed
Geoinformation and Cartography. Springer, Berlin, pp. 169-184.
data. In: International Journal of Remote Sensing 10(6): 989–1002.
Marpu, P.R., Bachmann, F. & Niemeyer, I., 2008b: A class dependent neural
network architecture for object-based classification. GEOBIA 2008, Calgary,
6-7 August 2008.
Nielsen, A.A., 2007: The Regularized Iteratively Reweighted MAD Method for
Change Detection in Multi- and Hyperspectral Data, IEEE Transactions on
Image Processing Vol. 16, No. 2, pp. 463-478.
81

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Short Course Remote Sensing 2009

Part 1: Image Analysis for Remote Sensing

Object-based Image Analysis

Digital image processing system:

Æ„Enhancement “ of the human eye?

Æ Improvements of software techniques towards human image

Image matrix X=(x)ijn j

Using the multispectral feature space

Object level 1 Object level 2 Object level 3

Result of chessboard segmentation with scale 20

h(s) = w c hc (s) + w s hs (s)

hs (s) = w smoothhsmooth(s) + w comp hcomp (s)

Bayes’ statistical approach:

SEATH: A semi-automatic feature recognition tool

• Change detection is the process of identifying and quantifying temporal

Given image data from two acquisition times,

1. on the basis of the bitemporal data set,

2. by applying the segmentation parameters

assigning the object borders to the image Time 2

data of the other date, Segmentation

3. separately for the two times.

• Common segmentation (1, 2):

• separate segmentation (3):

[Niemeyer et al. 2009 from Listner 2008] 53

• For testing the plausibility of the merges, Listner (2008) suggested

global segment adjustment

[Niemeyer et al. 2009 from Listner 2008] 56

[Niemeyer et al. 2009 from Listner 2008] 57

Input Data: QUICKBIRD, Esfahan Nuclear Centre

Very-high resolution optical imagery

• image-to-image registration by contour

• radiometric normalisation using no-

2002 Pan-sharpened 2003

Gram Schmidt Resolution

July 2002 July 2003

Pre-processed Quickbird image Pre-processed Quickbird image

[Nussbaum & Niemeyer 2007] 62

MAD Components 1 (red), 2 (green), 3 (blue)

On the basis of the 2003 pan-sharpened MS

Level 1 Level 3 Level 5

Level 1 Level 3 Level 5

 Level 1  Level 3  Level 5

AST_07 data, pixel level AST_07 data, object level

Change information given by the

MAD 2 (red), MAD 3 (green), MAD 4 (blue)

ASTER July 2000 ASTER July 2001

Change given by MADs 2,3,4. changes within industrial areas

[Nussbaum & Niemeyer 2007] 70

[Nussbaum & Niemeyer 2007] 71

[Nussbaum & Niemeyer 2007] 72

[Nussbaum & Niemeyer 2007] 73

Pre- Object Feature Change Clustering Post-classification

Map of Improved map of

• linear combination of the intensities for all N object features in the

U = aTF = a1F1 + a2F2 + . . . aNFN

• linear combination all N object features in the second image acquired

V = bTG = b1G1 + b2G2 + . . . bNGN

• scalar difference image

• determination of a and b, so that the positive correlation between U

Change detection: Change information given by object MADs

[Niemeyer et al. 2009] 77

Unsupervised classification of changes

Level 1 Level 3 Level 5