Chapter 6

Classical Greece and the Hellenistic World

CHAPTER SUMMARY

Classical Greece built on the legacy of earlier regional civilizations in the Middle East, Egypt, Crete, and
Mycenae. Indo-European Greek-speaking invaders were assimilated. Internal warfare and new Indo-
European invasions destroyed the early civilization, but Greek-speakers spread around the Aegean Sea. By
800 B.C.E. a new classical civilization began to emerge. Greek politics and culture flourished until 400
B.C.E. Then Alexander the Great formed a military empire and introduced the Hellenistic period, a time
when Greek culture spread widely in the Middle East, North Africa, and southern Europe. The Greeks
demonstrated new political and cultural capacities in philosophy and politics, and in scientific and
mathematical advances. The Greek legacy influenced many later societies.

The Persian Empire: Parallel Power in the Middle East. The Persians developed different political and
cultural values than the Greeks. They influenced many world historical currents and today's nation of Iran.
About 550 B.C.E. Cyrus the Great established a Persian empire as successor to the Mesopotamian states of
the past. The empire tolerated traditional cultures and Persians advanced iron technology. Religious leader
Zoroaster revised Sumerian beliefs to produce a religion emphasizing the importance of choosing between
the divine forces of good and evil; a last judgment decided the eternal fate of each person. Later Persian
rulers expanded the empire and provided much of the Middle East with a long period of peace and
prosperity. Although ultimately conquered by Alexander, Persian language and culture remained
influential.

The Political Character of Classical Greece. Greek civilization emerged in small communities
incorporating the heritage of Crete and Mycenae. Invading Indo-Europeans contributed a polytheistic
religion carried through oral traditions embodying societal cultural values. Another stimulation to Greek
civilization came from a general revival of trade in the eastern Mediterranean spurred by the introduction
of coined money. Increased wealth spurred population growth and social change in Greece that
encouraged new political forms.

The Emergence of Greek Forms. The Greeks adapted the Phoenician alphabet to write their own
language. The spread of literacy enhanced commercial exchanges and cultural life. The Iliad and the
Odyssey were written down and provided a mythic foundation for Hellenic culture. In architecture the
Greeks developed distinctive forms based upon an oblong building framed by pillars. Sculpture moved to
a more realistic portrayal of the human body, while decorated pottery depicted scenes of human activity.

The City-State as a Political Unit. After 800 B.C.E. government revolved around a city-state (polis),
polities varying in size and embracing a city and its agricultural hinterland. Many city-states formed, but
political unification did not occur. The city-states were ruled by landowning aristocrats descended from
Indo-European warriors. They and free farmer citizens met to discuss political issues in councils, even
when there were kings. After 700 B.C.E. the system of aristocratic control was challenged as a result of
commercial expansion and the growth of specialized commercial agriculture. Small landholders suffered
and a growing gulf emerged between the rich and poor. Some aristocratic oligarchies in purely
agricultural regions, as in Sparta, remained unchallenged, but others faced steady pressure. By the 6th
century B.C.E. urban commercial groups and dispossessed farmers sought reform. Tyrants won support
by challenging aristocratic interests. Other reformers, like Solon of Athens, labored to develop new laws
to regulate economic relationships. Additional cause for change came from the democratization of
military service by qualified citizens. By 500 B.C.E. most city-states were based upon principles of
loyalty to the public community rather than to an individual ruler. Widespread participation in public life
by male citizens was common. Since each city-state had its own gods, religious rituals also supported
involvement.

The Rise of Democracy in Athens. Athens took the lead in democratic development, but Solon's reforms
did not resolve all societal tensions. Pisastratus ruled as a tyrant, but following his death the reformer
Cleisthenes reestablished a council elected by all citizens. Athens continued to depend upon a popular
assembly of citizens as sovereign authority. Citizens formed the army and served as jurors. Most officials
were chosen by lot and were responsible to the assembly. The Athenians did not follow today's
democratic ideals. Many adults - women, slaves, and foreigners - were excluded from political rights, and
aristocrats, as Pericles and Alcibiades, had excessive importance.

A Comparison of Greek and Chinese Political Styles. Greek political life emphasized individual
participation, but in a decentralized system quite different from the single centralized Chinese state.
Formal law was more important to the Greeks, while the Chinese stressed bureaucratic codes.

Greek Diplomacy and the Tensions of United Effort. Many city-states founded colonies along the
coasts of the Mediterranean and Black Sea. They relieved population pressure, provided grain supplies,
and served as markets for Greek products. The city-states acted together in a few activities. They
cooperated in the Olympic games and recognized the oracle at Delphi. An important collaboration
occurred when Greeks united and preserved independence by defeating a Persian invasion. After the wars
Athens dominated other Greek city-states through an alliance, the Delian League. Athens gained valuable
resources, but the new wealth caused political divisions and infighting.

Athens versus Sparta. The growing power of a democratic, commercially active Athens led to
competition with oligarchic, conservative, and militaristic Sparta. They fought from 431 to 404 B.C.E. in
the Peloponnesian War. Athens, weakened by a disastrous plague and an unsuccessful invasion of Sicily,
surrendered to Sparta in 404 B.C.E. The defeat marked the end of the dominance of the polis.

The Hellenistic Period. Sparta failed to dominate Greece after its victory. The Peloponnesian War had
destroyed any basis for Greek unity and weakened the major participants. A conquering northern state
took control of Greece and expanded into the Middle East and Egypt. The short-lived empire of
Alexander the Great greatly expanded the impact of Greek culture.

Macedonian Conquest. The northern kingdom of Macedon filled the power vacuum in Greece. The
loosely organized, Greek-influenced state, was strengthened militarily during the rule of Philip II (359-
336 B.C.E.). He invaded and conquered the divided Greek city-states by 338 B.C.E.

Alexander the Great. Philip's son, Alexander, invaded and defeated the Persian empire in campaigns
between 334 and 331 B.C.E. He also took control of Egypt. Alexander pressed on into India but was
halted when his army refused to go on. Alexander hoped to merge Greek and Asian traditions. He
founded numerous cities, spread Greek officials widely, encouraged intermarriage with local women, and
established centers of Greek scholarship. Alexander's unexpected death in 323 B.C.E. ended the dream of
a multinational empire.

Later Hellenistic States. The new empire quickly fragmented into states run by former generals. City-
states still existed, but politics centered on military empires. The three principal dynasties were the
Ptolemies in Egypt, the Seleucids in Persia, and the Antigonids in Macedon and Greece. Many Greeks
remained in the successor states as officials and merchants, and Greek culture spread widely to mix with
other cultures and form a new intellectual framework for much of the civilized world. In northwestern
India the kingdom of Bactria importantly mixed Greek and Indian themes.

Creativity in Greek and Hellenistic Culture. The genius of Greek civilization expressed itself more in
culture than politics. Greek culture made lasting contributions to the Mediterranean world in art and
philosophy and served as a key contribution to the larger Hellenistic world created by Alexander..
Religion, Philosophy, and Science. Unlike the Indians and Chinese, the Greeks did not create a major
religion. They focused upon a pantheon of unruly gods and goddesses who interfered in human affairs.
Both Greeks and Indians drew their religion from Indo-European origins, but the Greeks produced a more
human-centered approach. Its lack of spiritual passion contributed to the development of alternative
“mystery’ religions more satisfying to people’s needs. Since religion did not provide a basis for ethical
thought, Greek thinkers worked to create a separate philosophical system. The effort to understand
phenomena through rational observation became a hallmark of Greek and Hellenistic culture. Socrates
urged consideration of secular criteria for moral decisions. Aristotle stressed the importance of
moderation to balance political and religious instability. The Stoics stressed inner moral independence.
Other philosophers attempted to define appropriate political structures. Plato proposed an ideal
government where philosophers ruled. Most philosophers stressed practical, balanced systems
incorporating democratic and oligarchic elements. A nonreligious philosophy encouraged emphasis on
the powers of human thought. Socrates encouraged skepticism; Plato suggested reason could approach an
understanding of eternal reality. In science the Greeks, unlike the Chinese, speculated about nature’s
order, founding a lasting Western passion for seeking rationality in the universe. Pythagoras and Euclid
contributed major achievements to geometry, while Galen’s contributions to anatomy were a standard for
centuries.

Literature and the Arts. All arts received attention, but drama had a central role in Greek culture. The
Greek division of drama into comedy and tragedy remains a Western tradition. Athenian dramatists
Sophocles used tragedy to demonstrate the fragility of human virtues. Aristophanes did the same through
comedy. Greek literature included a strong epic tradition, and formal historical writing emerged with
Herodotus and Thucydides. In visual arts the Greeks emphasized architecture, ceramics, and realistic
sculpture. Temples, markets, and public buildings had three building styles: Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian.
All art was intended for public utilization: temples and markets were for daily use; dramas were public
rituals for all citizens.

The Principles of Greek Culture. Cultural achievement was based on four principles. An emphasis on
formal political theory reflected the special political atmosphere of Greece. Art and sculpture glorified
human achievement. Drama and philosophy stressed the importance of human striving. The
philosophical and scientific tradition emphasized the validity of logical constructs for understanding the
natural world. There was, however, a large cultural gap between the elite and the masses.

Hellenistic Culture during and after Alexander. The decline of the city-state produced significant
changes. Older literary works were preserved and analyzed, but little new drama was produced.
Historical writing flourished. In architecture more elaborate decorative motifs emerged; in art and
sculpture old styles persisted. Hellenistic intellectuals developed new knowledge in science, and
mathematics. Astronomical charts and geographical knowledge improved. Overall, Hellenistic thinkers
left a considerable legacy in all fields for later eras.

In Depth: Defining Social History. Until recently historians awarded an undue emphasis to political and
intellectual history. Social and economic history was given a secondary place. It is now recognized that
the lives of ordinary men and women deserve a major place in the study of the past of all societies. The
daily activities of the often silent masses are difficult, but not impossible, to reconstruct. To understand
the past, and the present, historians must attempt to portray the lives of all segments of society. So-called
ordinary people, after all, have made up the bulk of human society. The often-neglected role of women is
an obvious example of the past insensitivity to the reality of human existence. The only way to
understand how a society functions is to give proper attention to all of its members.

Patterns of Greek and Hellenistic Society. The standard features of an agricultural society, a large
peasantry and a landowning aristocracy, were basic to Greek and Hellenistic society. Commerce,
although often looked down upon, was vital. Patriarchal family values predominated, although there was
more ambivalence about women than in classical China. Slavery was of major importance.

Economic and Social Structure. Economic and social structure in classical Greece resembled that of
other civilizations where warlike invaders had settled down to agriculture. The aristocracy was based on
land ownership and military service. Many independent farmers owned land and claimed political and
social rights. Increasing commerce and urban growth then complicated social structure. Distinctive
factors for the Greeks included an infertile, mountain environment making city-states dependent on trade.
War and colonization allowed the frequent seizing of slaves, thus resulting in less attention being given to
manufacturing technology. Aristocratic dominance in politics and society persisted. Merchants remained
in an ambiguous position; their status was higher than in Confucian China, but lass firm than in India.

Rural Life and Agriculture. The majority of the population was rural, not urban. They maintained
distinctive beliefs, such as fertility rituals. Even though free farmers played a vital role in early politics,
much societal tension resulted from large landholder efforts to force them from their property. The
problem was increased by the nature of Greek agriculture. Soil was unsuited for grain, the basic life
staple. Farmers turned to crops, olives and grapes, that gave a greater return. They required intensive
capital investment and thus favored aristocratic landowners. Mediterranean agriculture became unusually
market-oriented, spurring tendencies to import grain supplies and to develop export markets. Large-scale,
commercial agriculture became dominant throughout the Hellenistic world. As a result peasants clustered
in small towns, not the villages typical elsewhere.

Slavery and Production. Slavery, justified by Aristotle, was vital to a society and economy dominated
by aristocrats devoted to political and cultural pursuits. Slaves, often acquired in war, served in almost all
occupations. Many enjoyed considerable personal and economic independence, but the system clearly
demonstrated the limited nature of Greek democracy.

Men, Women, and Social Divisions. Greek culture emphasized the husband/father in control of a tightly
structured family. Women performed vital economic functions , especially in farming or artisan families,
and powerful female personalities often were influential within households. Although women had some
legal rights, both law and culture held them inferior. Female infanticide might occur in large families.
Marriage was arranged by a father. Divorce was possible for men at will; women needed court procedure.
Adultery was without penalty for men; women could be divorced. Women focused their lives on
household duties. Upper class men consorted more often with lower-class women and male youths than
with wives. In the Hellenistic period conditions for women improved, but they remained a subordinate
group..

Conclusion: A Complex Legacy. The durability of classical Greek and Hellenistic culture came from the
power of its cultural forms, settled peasant routine, and technological continuity. The Greeks, unlike the
Chinese, did not develop enduring political forms. Their legacy was in the realm of ideas and examples,
in the ideals of citizenship and the heritage of slavery. Art and philosophy made the most lasting
contributions, particularly in intellectual circles. Ordinary people were less influenced.. Greece's legacy
became a fundamental part of the Middle Eastern and Western heritage.

KEY TERMS

Cyrus the Great: founded Persian Empire by 550 B.C.E.; successor state to Mesopotamian empires.

Zoroastrianism: Persian religion that saw material existence as a battle between the forces of good and
evil; stressed the importance of moral choice; a last judgment decided the eternal fate of each person.

Hellenism: culture derived from the Greek civilization that flourished between 800 and 400 B.C.E.

Hellenistic culture: culture associated with the spread of Greek influence and intermixture with other
cultures as a result of Macedonian conquests.

Iliad and Odyssey: Greek epic poems attributed to Homer; defined relations of gods and humans that
shaped Greek mythology.

polis: city-state form of government typical of Greek political organization from 800 to 400 B.C.E.
Solon: Athenian reformer of the 6h century; established laws that eased the debt burden of farmers;
forbade enslavement for debt.

Socrates: Athenian philosopher of late 5th century B.C.E.; tutor of Plato; urged rational reflection of
moral decisions; condemned to death for "corrupting" minds of Athenian young.

direct democracy: literally rule of the people, in Athens meaning free male citizens; all decisions
emanated from the popular assembly without intermediation of elected representatives.

Pericles: Athenian political leader during 5th century B.C.E.; guided development of Athenian empire.

Olympic games: one of the pan-Hellenic rituals observed by all Greek city-states; involved athletic
competitions and ritual celebrations.

Oracle of Delphi: person representing the god Apollo; received cryptic messages from the god that had
predictive value if the seeker could correctly interpret the communication.

Persian Wars: 5th century B.C.E wars between the Persian empire and Greek city-states; Greek victories
allowed Greek civilization to define identity.

Delian League: alliance formed by Athens with other city-states after Persian wars; later taken over by
Athens and became Athenian empire.

Peloponnesian War: war from 431 to 404 B.C.E. between Athens and Sparta for domination in Greece;
the Spartans won but failed to achieve political unification in Greece.

Macedon: kingdom of northern Greece; originally loosely organized under kings; became centralized
under Philip II; conquered Greek city-states.

Philip II: ruled Macedon from 359 to 336 B.C.E.; founder of centralized kingdom; conquered Greece.

Alexander the Great: son and successor of Philip II; conquered Persian empire and advanced to borders
of India; attempted to combine Greek and Persian culture.

Ptolemies: a regional dynasty after the death of Alexander; ruled in Egypt.

Seleucids: a regional dynasty after the death of Alexander; ruled in Persia.

Antigonids: a regional dynasty after the death of Alexander; ruled in Macedon and Greece.

Aristotle: Greek philosopher; teacher of Alexander; taught that knowledge was based upon observation of
phenomena in material world.

Stoics: Hellenistic philosophers; they emphasized inner moral independence cultivated by strict discipline
of the body and personal bravery.

Plato: Greek philosopher; knowledge based upon consideration of ideal forms outside the material world;
proposed ideal form of government based on abstract principles in which philosophy ruled.

Sophocles: Greek writer of tragedies; author of Oedipus Rex.

Aristophanes: Greek writer of comedies: author of the Frogs.

Doric, Ionic, Corinthian: three distinct styles of Hellenic architecture; listed in order of increasing ornate
quality.
Alexandria: great city founded in Egypt by Alexander; site of Mediterranean world's greatest library;
great intellectual center.

helots: conquered indigenous population of Sparta; provided agricultural labor for Spartan landowners;
only semi-free; largest part of the population.

LECTURE SUGGESTIONS

1. Discuss the differences in political organization between Greece and China. Greece was less
politically united and hierarchic; it lacked imperial unity except briefly under Alexander; it did not have a
formal bureaucracy. Both China and Greece developed formal theories of government. In social structure
both held merchants and women in low social esteem, although women were marginally better off in
Greek culture. The Greeks did not have a scholar-gentry class and they depended more on slavery than
the Chinese. In philosophy both developed major systems: the Chinese with Confucius emphasized social
and political order and with Laozi stress on unity with nature; the Greeks stressed the rational basis for the
political order (Plato and Aristotle) and the natural world. Greek philosophy tended to be more dependent
on general theories based on rational explanation of phenomena than the Chinese.

2. Discuss the reasons for political and social fragmentation in classical Greece. Greek geography
fostered political separatism. Their form of political organization, received from Mycenean civilization,
was the city-state, not the empire. The city-states retained their separate identities until the Hellenistic
period and existed in some form thereafter; competition between the city-states often ended in war. In
social affairs there was always a gulf between the aristocratic elite and the lower classes. They had
separate religious practices; philosophy did not appeal to the lower classes. The economy depended on
slavery. In all, there was a greater gulf between social groups in Greece than in many other civilizations.

CLASS DISCUSSION QUESTIONS

1. How does Greek civilization compare and contrast to other civilizations?

2. Define a polis. How did the polis change between 800 and 400 B.C.E.?

3. How did Greek city-states work together? Why were they often separate?

4. Compare the political structure of Hellenistic Greece to that of the Greek world before
400 B.C.E.

5. What was the function of philosophy in Greek culture?

6. What, according to the authors, were the principles of Greek culture?

7. Why was the Greek economy so market-oriented?

8. Discuss the role of slavery in Greek economic and social life.

9. Discuss the status of women in society. What effect did class position have on
women's roles?

THE INSTRUCTOR'S TOOL KIT

Map References

Danzer, Discovering World History through Maps and Views Source Maps: S13, S15. Reference Maps:
R26-R27.

Audio Cassettes
Aristophanes, Lysistrata, translated by Dudley Fitts. Caedmon
Euripides, Sophocles, Aeschylus: Greek Tragedy, in Greek, to gain a
notion of the power of the Greek spoken word. Caedmon
The Golden Treasury of Greek Poetry and Prose, in Ancient Greek. Caedmon
Plato, The Apology, translated by Benjamin E. Jowett. Caedmon
Sophocles, Antigone, translated by Dudley Fitts. Caedmon
Sophocles, Oedipus Rex, translated by William B. Yeats. Caedmon

Video/Film

Athens: The Golden Age. Encyclopedia Britannica

The Greek Myths. 2 parts. Encyclopedia Britannica
The Acropolis of Athens. Media Guide Films
The Glory that was Greece. Time-Life Films
Alexander the Great and the Hellenistic Age. Coronet Films
The Music of the Spheres. Fourth program of Jacob Bronowski's The Ascent of Man series. Time-Life
Numbers 1 and 7 of Carl Sagan's Cosmos series, The Shores of the Cosmic
Ocean and The Backbone of the Night discuss Greek science
Euripides, Medea. Films for the Humanities and Sciences
The Greek Beginning. Films for the Humanities and Sciences
The Classical Age. Films for the Humanities and Sciences
Heroes and Men. Films for the Humanities and Sciences
The Minds of Men. Films for the Humanities and Sciences
Heinrich Schliemann: The Rediscovery of Troy. Films for the Humanities and Sciences
Thucydides: The Peloponnesian Wars and Plato: Alcibiades I. Films for the Humanities
and Sciences
The God-Haunted. Films for the Humanities and Sciences